Sleep and manipulations of the sleep–wake rhythm in depression
Abstract
Objective: Disturbed sleep is typical for most depressed patients and complaints about disordered sleep are the hallmarks of the disorder. Polysomnographic sleep research has demonstrated that besides impaired sleep continuity, sleep in depression is characterized by a reduction of slow wave sleep and a disinhibition of random eye movement (REM) sleep, with a shortening of REM latency, a prolongation of the first REM period and increased REM density. Method: Our own experimental work has focused on the reciprocal interaction hypothesis of non‐REM and REM sleep regulation as a model to explain the characteristic features of depressed sleep. Results: In agreement with the major tenet of this model, administration of cholinomimetics provoked shortened REM latency in healthy subjects and led to an even stronger REM sleep disinhibition in depressed patients. Manipulations of the sleep–wake cycle, such as sleep deprivation or a phase advance of the sleep period, alleviate depressive symptoms. Conclusion: These data indicate a strong bidirectional relationship between sleep, sleep alterations and depression.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Wake therapy directly alters sleep-wake rhythms by increasing slow-wave sleep, reducing latency to REM sleep, and reducing duration of REM sleep.
“Wake therapy directly alters sleep-wake rhythms by increasing the amount of SWS, reducing the latency to REM sleep, and reducing the duration of REM sleep87.”
From Circadian rhythm disruption and mental health (2020) · cites this paper as [87]
Cites
Epidemiologic study of sleep disturbances and psychiatric disorders. An opportunity for prevention?
Ford, D. E. (1989) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.262.11.1479 · Cited by 2,440 · see citing works
Epidemiologic Study of Sleep Disturbances and Psychiatric Disorders: An Opportunity for Prevention?
Ford, D. E. (1989) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1989.03430110069030 · Cited by 2,252 · see citing works
Sleep disturbance and psychiatric disorders: A longitudinal epidemiological study of young Adults
Breslau, N., Roth, T., Rosenthal, L., & Andreski, P. (1996) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(95)00188-3 · Cited by 1,831 · see citing works
Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders: A Meta-analysis
Benca, R. M. (1992) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820080059010 · Cited by 1,468 · see citing works
Sleep Cycle Oscillation: Reciprocal Discharge by Two Brainstem Neuronal Groups
Hobson, J. A., McCarley, R. W., & Wyzinski, P. (1975) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1094539 · Cited by 1,238 · see citing works
A cholinergic-adrenergic hypothesis of mania and depression
Janowsky, D., Davis, J., El-Yousef, M. K., & Sekerke, H. J. (1972) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(72)93021-8 · Cited by 1,134 · see citing works
Insomnia in Young Men and Subsequent Depression: The Johns Hopkins Precursors Study
Chang, P. P., Ford, D. E., Mead, L. A., Cooper, L. A., & Klag, M. J. (1997) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009241 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
Sleep and depression--results from psychobiological studies: an overview
Riemann, D., Berger, M., & Voderholzer, U. (2001) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(01)00090-4 · Cited by 653 · see citing works
Self-citationPrimary insomnia: a risk factor to develop depression?
Riemann, D. (2003) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00072-1 · Cited by 641 · see citing works
Self-citationWu, J. C., & Bunney, W. E. (1990) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.147.1.14 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Self-reported sleep disturbance as a prodromal symptom in recurrent depression
Perlis, M. L., Giles, D. E., Buysse, D. J., Tu, X. M., & Kupfer, D. J. (1997) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(96)01411-5 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
NEUROBIOLOGY OF MOOD DISORDERS
(2017) · International Supply Chain Technology Journal · doi:10.20545/isctj.v03.n12.03 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Porkka‐Heiskanen, T., Strecker, R. E., & McCarley, R. W. (2000) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(00)00220-7 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
REM latency: a psychobiologic marker for primary depressive disease.
Dj, K. (1976) · PubMed · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Improvement of Depression by REM Sleep Deprivation
Vogel, G. W. (1980) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1980.01780160017001 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Paffenbarger, R. S., Lee, I.-M., & Leung, R. (1994) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1994.tb05796.x · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Sleep deprivation in depression: what do we know, where do we go?
Wirz-Justice, A., & Van den Hoofdakker, R. H. (1999) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(99)00125-0 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
INTERVAL BETWEEN ONSET OF SLEEP AND RAPID-EYE-MOVEMENT SLEEP AS AN INDICATOR OF DEPRESSION
Kupfer, D. J., & Foster, F. G. (1972) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(72)92090-9 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Prevalence and treatment of insomnia in general practice
Hohagen, F., Rink, K., Käppler, C. D. O., Schramm, E., Riemann, D. W., Weyerer, S. B., & Berger, T. (1993) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/bf02190245 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Self-citationDecreased Regional Brain Metabolism After ECT
Nobler, M. S., Oquendo, M. A., Kegeles, L. S., Malone, K. M., Campbell, C., Sackeim, H. A., & Mann, J. J. (2001) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.2.305 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Wu, J. C., Buchsbaum, M. S., Gillin, J. C., Tang, C. Y., Cadwell, S., Wiegand, M. H., Najafi, A., Klein, E., Hazen, K., & Bunney, W. E. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.8.1149 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Evolving concepts of sleep cycle generation: From brain centers to neuronal populations
Hobson, J. A., Lydic, R., & Baghdoyan, H. A. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00046215 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Does sleep disturbance predict depression in elderly people? A study in inner London.
Livingston, G., Blizard, B., & Mann, A. (1993) · PubMed · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Effect of sleep deprivation on brain metabolism of depressed patients
Wu, J. C., Gillin, J. C., Buchsbaum, M. S., Hershey, T. G., Johnson, J., & Bunney, W. E. (1992) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.149.4.538 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Bunney, W. E. (2000) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(99)00145-1 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Neurobiology of Mood Disorders
Rubin, E. H., & Zorumski, C. F. (1985) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-198502000-00013 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Neuronal Basis of Behavioral State Control
Hobson, J. A., & Steriade, M. (1986) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.cp010414 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow in Mood Disorders, III
Nobler, M. S. (1994) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950110044007 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
REM sleep and depression: common neurobiological control mechanisms
McCarley, R. W. (1982) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.139.5.565 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Sitaram, N., Nürnberger, J. I., Gershon, E. S., & Gillin, J. C. (1982) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.139.5.571 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Benington, J. H., Kodali, S., & Heller, H. C. (1995) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(95)00590-m · Cited by 228 · see citing works
The Effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy on Quantitative Electroencephalograms
Sackeïm, H. A. (1996) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830090060009 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Faster Cholinergic REM Sleep Induction in Euthymic Patients with Primary Affective Illness
Sitaram, N., Nürnberger, J. I., Gershon, E. S., & Gillin, J. C. (1980) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7361118 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Ebert, D., Feistel, H., & Barocka, A. (1991) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/0925-4927(91)90016-j · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Frank, E., Hlastala, S. A., Ritenour, A., Houck, P. R., Tu, X. M., Monk, T. H., Mallinger, A. G., & Kupfer, D. J. (1997) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(96)00241-7 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Adenosine in sleep and wakefulness
Porkka‐Heiskanen, T. (1999) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.3109/07853899908998788 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Mendelson, W. B., Gillin, J. C., & Wyatt, R. J. (1977) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2289-4 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
In Quest of Identifying Vulnerability Markers for Psychiatric Disorders by All-Night Polysomnography
Lauer, C. J. (1995) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950140063009 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Sleep loss, a possible factor in augmenting manic episode
Barbini, B., Bertelli, S., Colombo, C., & Smeraldi, E. (1996) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/s0165-1781(96)02909-5 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Smith, G. S., Reynolds, C. F., Pollock, B. G., Derbyshire, S. W. G., Nofzinger, E. A., Dew, M. A., Houck, P. R., Milko, D., MELTZER, C. C., & Kupfer, D. J. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.5.683 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
[Therapy of endogenous depressions using sleep deprivation. Practical and theoretical consequences].
Pflug, B., & Tölle, R. (1971) · PubMed · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Intrinsic regulatory systems of the brain
Mountcastle, V. B., & Bloom, F. E. (1986) · American Physiological Society eBooks · Cited by 119 · see citing works
(1997) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.154.6.870 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Fiebich, B. L., Biber, K. P. H., Gyufko, K., et al. (1996) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.1996.66041426.x · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Benedetti, F., Barbini, B., Campori, E., Fulgosi, M. C., Pontiggia, A., & Colombo, C. (2001) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3956(01)00034-6 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Increased limbic blood flow and total sleep deprivation in major depression with melancholia
Ebert, D., Feistel, H., Barocka, A., & Kaschka, W. P. (1994) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/0925-4927(94)90004-3 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Riemann, D., König, A., Hohagen, F., Kiemen, A., Voderholzer, U., Backhaus, J., Bunz, J., Wesiack, B., Hermle, L., & Berger, M. (1999) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s004060050092 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Ebert, D., & Berger, T. (1998) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s002130050732 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
The Cholinergic Rapid Eye Movement Induction Test With Arecoline in Depression
Gillin, J. C. (1991) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810270076011 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Brown, L. F., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Prigerson, H. G., Dew, M. A., Houck, P. R., Mazumdar, S., Buysse, D. J., Hoch, C. C., & Kupfer, D. J. (1996) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(96)02914-9 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Prediction of the antidepressant response to total sleep deprivation by diurnal variation of mood
Reinink, E., Bouhuys, N., Wirz‐Justice, A., & van den Hoofdakker, R. (1990) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(90)90077-i · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Sleep-Loss as a Possible Mediator of Diverse Causes of Mania
Wehr, T. A. (1991) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.159.4.576 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Bhatti, T., Gillin, J. C., Seifritz, E., Moore, P., Clark, C., Golshan, S., Stahl, S., Rapaport, M., & Kelsoe, J. (1998) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(97)80252-1 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Wiegand, M. H., Riemann, D. W., Schreiber, W., Lauer, C. J., & Berger, T. (1993) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(93)90175-d · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationOpposite changes in adenosine A1 and A2A receptor mRNA in the rat following sleep deprivation
Basheer, R., Halldner, L., Alanko, L., McCarley, R. W., Fredholm, B. B., & Porkka‐Heiskanen, T. (2001) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200106130-00013 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
The influence of daytime naps on the therapeutic effect of sleep deprivation
Wiegand, M. H., Berger, T., Zulley, J., Lauer, C. J., & Zerssen, D. V. (1987) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(87)90157-0 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Mental comorbidity of chronic insomnia in general practice attenders using DSM‐III‐R
Schramm, E., Hohagen, F., Käppler, C., Grasshoff, U., & Berger, M. (1995) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1995.tb09735.x · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Voderholzer, U. (1998) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(97)00094-8 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Riemann, D. W., & Berger, T. (1990) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb06444.x · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationREM latency in neurotic and endogenous depression and the cholinergic REM induction test
Berger, T., Lund, R., Bronisch, T., & Zerssen, D. V. (1983) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(83)90110-5 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
EEG sleep in depression and in remission and the REM sleep response to the cholinergic agonist RS 86
Riemann, D. W. (1989) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/0893-133x(89)90017-1 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationNaps after total sleep deprivation in depressed patients: Are they depressiogenic?
Riemann, D. W., Wiegand, M. H., Lauer, C. J., & Berger, T. (1993) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(93)90099-3 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationAcetylcholine, sleep, and depression.
Gillin, J. C., Sitaram, N., & Mendelson, W. B. (1982) · PubMed · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Duncan, W. C., Gillin, J. C., Post, R. M., Rh, G., & Ta, W. (1980) · PubMed · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Biber, K. P. H. (2001) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(00)00169-x · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Cholinergic REM sleep induction test in subjects at high risk for psychiatric disorders
Schreiber, W., Lauer, C. J., Krumrey, K., Holsboer, F., & Krieg, J.-C. (1992) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(92)90144-o · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The association of supersensitive cholinergic rem-induction and affective illness within pedigrees
Sitaram, N., Dubé, S., Keshavan, M. S., Davies, A., & Reynal, P. (1987) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3956(87)90097-5 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Five Variations of Sleep Deprivation in a Depressed Woman
Knowles, J. B., Southmayd, S. E., Delva, N. J., MacLean, A. W., Cairns, J., & Letemendia, F. J. J. (1979) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.135.5.403 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Circadian acetylcholine receptor rhythm in rat brain and its modification by imipramine
Kafka, M. S., Wirz‐Justice, A., Naber, D., & Wehr, T. A. (1981) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/0028-3908(81)90171-4 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Volk, S., Kaendler, S., Hertel, A., Maul, F. D., Manoocheri, R., Weber, R., Georgi, K., Pflug, B., & Hör, G. (1997) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/s0925-4927(97)00021-8 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Vollmann, J., & Berger, T. (1993) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(93)90280-q · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Biber, K. P. H. (1999) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(98)00059-1 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Volk, S., Kaendler, S., Weber, R., Georgi, K., Maul, F. D., Hertel, A., Pflug, B., & Hör, G. (1992) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1992.tb03301.x · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Measuring cholinergic sensitivity: I. Arecoline effects in bipolar patients
Nürnberger, J. I., Berrettini, W. H., Mendelson, W. B., Sack, D. A., & Gershon, E. S. (1989) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(89)90221-7 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Are there predictors for sleep deprivation response in depressed patients?
Riemann, D. W., Wiegand, M. H., & Berger, T. (1991) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(91)90145-c · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationWehr, T. A. (1990) · Clinical Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1097/00002826-199001001-00006 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Albert, R., Merz, A., Schubert, J., & Ebert, D. (1998) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s001150050240 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Lauriello, J., Kenny, W. M., Sutton, L. D., Golshan, S., Ruiz, C., Kelsoe, J. R., Rapaport, M. H., & Gillin, J. C. (1993) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(93)90275-i · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The effects of biperiden on nap sleep after sleep deprivation in depressed patients.
Dreßing, H. R., Riemann, D. W., Gann, H., et al. (1992) · PubMed · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationAdenosine and Antidepressant Effects of Sleep Deprivation
Lara, D. R., & Souza, D. O. (2000) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.10.1707-a · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Sleep disorders and mental disorders
Riemann, D. W., & Berger, T. (1998) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00001504-199805000-00016 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Circadian rhythm disruption and mental health
Walker, W. H., Walton, J. C., DeVries, A. C., & Nelson, R. J. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-0694-0 · Cited by 1,030 · see citing works
Circadian patterns of gene expression in the human brain and disruption in major depressive disorder
Li, J. Z., Bunney, B. G., Meng, F., Hagenauer, M. H., Walsh, D. M., Vawter, M. P., Evans, S. J., Choudary, P. V., Cartagena, P., Barchas, J. D., et al. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1305814110 · Cited by 589 · see citing works
Comorbidity of insomnia and depression
Staner, L. (2010) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2009.09.003 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Chronotherapeutics (light and wake therapy) in affective disorders
WIRZ-JUSTICE, A., BENEDETTI, F., BERGER, M., LAM, R. W., MARTINY, K., TERMAN, M., & WU, J. C. (2005) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329170500437x · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Peterson, M. J., & Benca, R. M. (2006) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2006.09.003 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Ghaemi, S. N. (2006) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbl061 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Nightmares associated with the eveningness chronotype
Nielsen, T. (2010) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730409351677 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Chronobiological features of dream production
Nielsen, T. A. (2004) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2004.06.005 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Chronotherapeutics (light and wake therapy) as a class of interventions for affective disorders
(2012) · Handbook of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-52002-9.00042-5 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
- Authors
- Berger, M., Van Calker, D., & Riemann, D.
- Affiliations
- University Medical Center Freiburg (DE)
- ORCID
- Riemann, D.
- Venue
- Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2003-09-04
- Volume
- 108
- Issue
- s418
- Pages
- 83-91
- ISSN
- 0001-690X (ISSN-L)
- 1600-0447
- OpenAlex
- W2106036773
- Cited by
- 82
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 0.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- FreiDok plus (Universitätsbibliothek Freiburg) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- depression, sleep disorders, sleep-wake cycle, REM sleep, slow-wave sleep, REM latency, cholinergic drugs, sleep deprivation, sleep phase advance
- MeSH terms
- Depressive Disorder, Humans, Risk Factors, Sleep Wake Disorders, Sleep, REM, Polysomnography, Cholinergic Agents
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review