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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
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Knowing when, where, and how to remember ; A problem of metacognition
Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
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Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
Cited by
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Commitment uncertainty: A theoretical overview.
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“However, as noted earlier, commitment uncertainty is notably different because it is conceptualized as a metacognitive process regarding individuals’ commitment processes (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundBai, B., & Wang, J. (2020) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168820971740 · Cited by 65
“Cognitive strategies, i.e. rehearsal strategies, elaboration strategies, and organizational strategies can be used by students to remember, understand, and learn the reading materials (Boekaerts, 1996; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundMetacognition of Junior High School Students in Mathematics Problem Solving Based on Cognitive Style
Sutama, Anif, S., Prayitno, H. J., et al. (2021) · Asian Journal of University Education · doi:10.24191/ajue.v17i1.12604 · Cited by 51
“It is closely related to the process of thinking (Flavell, 1979; Savic, 2016).”
BackgroundTranslating Embodied Cognition for Embodied Learning in the Classroom
Macrine, S. L., & Fugate, J. M. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.712626 · Cited by 89
“5Such a “translation” of psychology research to classroom-practice has, however, been done for research on metacognition (Flavell, 1979) (e.g. Tanner, 2012; Beach et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGroup awareness and regulation in computer-supported collaborative learning
Schnaubert, L., & Bodemer, D. (2022) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-022-09361-1 · Cited by 59
“One of the founding papers of metacognition research by Flavell (1979) views social aspects as a central target of metacognitive processes, as individuals need to learn that insufficient information may hinder the understanding of a social situation.”
BackgroundTestimonial Knowledge in Early Childhood, Revisited1
Goldberg, S. C. (2008) · Philosophy and Phenomenological Research · doi:10.1111/j.1933-1592.2007.00113.x · Cited by 50
East Asian international graduate students’ epistemological experiences in an American University
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The relationship between assessment types and text revision
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Transfer from structured to open-ended problem solving in a computerized metacognitive environment
Kapa, E. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.019 · Cited by 55
Methodologies in Cultural–Historical Activity Theory: The example of school-based development
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“When it comes to the pupils’ learning, it is expected that they shall develop a metacognitive competence and become self-regulated in their learning processes (Boekaerts, Pintrich and Zeidner 2000; Flavell 1979, 1987; Pintrich 2000; Zimmerman 2000, 2006).”
BackgroundBümen, N. T. (2007) · International Review of Education · doi:10.1007/s11159-007-9052-1 · Cited by 50
The Effects of Self-efficacy Beliefs and Metacognition on Academic Performance: A Mixed Method Study
Aurah, C. M. (2013) · American Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12691/education-1-8-11 · Cited by 51
“of metacognition for high-quality learning and problem solving is widely accepted [8,9,21] and has led to interest in creating learning experiences conducive to developing its use; such as metacognitive prompting.”
BackgroundImproving academic learning from computer-based narrative games
Pilegard, C., & Mayer, R. E. (2015) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.12.002 · Cited by 64
“Instructions and goals can influence the type of information a learner attends to in a learning situation (Erhel & Jamet, 2013; Flavell, 1979; van den Broek, Lorch, Linderholm, & Gustafson, 2001).”
BackgroundAgeing-related stereotypes in memory: When the beliefs come true
Bouazzaoui, B., Follenfant, A., Ric, F., Fay, S., Croizet, J., Atzeni, T., & Taconnat, L. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2015.1040802 · Cited by 50
“These beliefs refer to the concept of metamemory, which is cognition about memory (Flavell, 1979; Nelson, 1996) including beliefs about one’s own ability to remember and perceive change in performance over time.”
BackgroundImpacts of Time Constraints and System Delays on User Experience
Crescenzi, A., Kelly, D., & Azzopardi, L. A. (2016) · Conference on Human Information Interaction and Retrieval · doi:10.1145/2854946.2854976 · Cited by 52
“Future work will examine the relationship between metacognitive monitoring [12], task regulation activities and search behavior.”
BackgroundZajenkowski, M., Stolarski, M., Witowska, J., Maciantowicz, O., & Łowicki, P. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01844 · Cited by 52
“If one accepts this, it would be particularly valuable to reconsider the BTP concept from the perspective of theories of metacognition (cf. Flavell, 1979).”
Hooshyar, D., Kori, K., Pedaste, M., & Bardone, E. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12826 · Cited by 59
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Reading comprehension: The mediating role of metacognitive strategies
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“Later on, the concept was expanded to encompass psychological, as well as affective aspects that include knowledge or cognition about one's personal emotions or intentions regarding a cognitive initiative (Flavell, 2000). More specifically, Paris and Winograd (1990) explicated that “meta-cognition holds two vital trai…”
BackgroundWu, L., Liu, Q., Mao, G., & Zhang, S. (2020) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101913 · Cited by 52
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“However, in the constructivist view, learning is a self-regulated process (Bernacki, Byrnes, & Cromley, 2012; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundMetacognition in Collaborative Learning
Järvelä, S., Malmberg, J., Sobocinski, M., & Kirschner, P. A. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-65291-3_15 · Cited by 60
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“In humans (and perhaps nonhuman species; see Smith, Shields, & Washburn, 2003), monitoring and regulation of cognitive operations are achieved via metacognition (i.e., thinking about thinking; see Flavell, 1979 ).”
BackgroundThe Development of Cognitive Flexibility: Evidence from Children’s Drawings
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Children's category‐based inferences affect classification
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Learning, Achievement, and Assessment
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Writing in first and second language. Empirical studies on text quality and writing processes.
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Assessment as Learning: How Does Peer Assessment Function in Students' Learning?
Yin, S., Chen, F., & Chang, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.912568 · Cited by 81
“…is beyond the scope of this article; however, in brief, metacognition refers to an individual’s knowledge of one’s cognitive phenomena (Flavell, 1979), while self-regulation is the process that influences the external environment by self-observation, self-judgment, and selfreaction…”
BackgroundAssessing metacognition-based student feedback literacy for academic writing
Teng, M. F., & Ma, M. (2024) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2024.100811 · Cited by 70
Sidra, S., & Mason, C. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2543997 · Cited by 80
“Metacognition is often described as “ thinking about thinking ” (Flavell, 1979).”
Teachers’ moral values and their interpersonal relationships with students and cultural competence
Pantić, N., & Wubbels, T. (2012) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.11.011 · Cited by 51
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“It encompasses metacognitive knowledge—an awareness of one’s thinking, and metacognitive regulation—the ability to control and regulate one’s thinking (Flavell 1979).”
BackgroundStudent Perceived and Determined Knowledge of Biology Concepts in an Upper-Level Biology Course
Ziegler, B., & Montplaisir, L. M. (2014) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.13-09-0175 · Cited by 53
“It is possible to forget a piece of information that you can recall now and recall a piece of information now that you may later forget (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundMetacognitive therapy for obsessive–compulsive disorder: A pilot study
van der Heiden, C., Melchior, K., Dekker, A., Damstra, M., & Deen, M. L. (2016) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2016.02.002 · Cited by 52
“Metacognition refers to knowledge or beliefs about thinking and strategies used to regulate and control thinking processes (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundThinking skills and creativity in second language education: Where are we now?
Li, L. (2016) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2016.11.005 · Cited by 52
“Metacognition, first coined by Flavell (1979), refers to “knowledge concerning ones’ own cognitive processes and products or anything related to them” which includes “the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes in relation to the cognitive objects or data on…”
McCarthy, K. S., Likens, A. D., Johnson, A. M., Guerrero, T. A., & McNamara, D. S. (2018) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-018-0164-5 · Cited by 50
“Metacognition, or Bthinking about thinking,^ refers to processes related to evaluating what one knows (Flavell 1979).”
BackgroundMetacognitive Awareness and Critical Thinking Abilities of Pre-service EFL Teachers
Çakıcı, D. (2018) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v7n5p116 · Cited by 67
“In a later study, Flavell (1979) conceptualized metacognition as “knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena” and “thinking about thinking” (Flavell, 1979: 906).”
BackgroundHasson‐Ohayon, I., Gumley, A. I., McLeod, H. J., & Lysaker, P. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00567 · Cited by 51
“In this first paper, Flavell (1979) emphasized how metacognition involves the conscious awareness of cognitive performance and listed four components: metacognitive knowledge—stored beliefs about self and others; metacognitive experiences—reflection about cognitive processes; metacognitive goals;…”
BackgroundMethodChanges in metacognitive monitoring accuracy in an introductory physics course
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Metacognitive feelings as a source of information in the evaluation and selection of creative ideas
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“• “I am engaging in metacognition...if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than learning B; if it strikes me that I should double-check C before accepting it as a fact” (Flavell 1979).”
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Hanna, F. J., & Ottens, A. J. (1995) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/h0101273 · Cited by 50
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A Test of One Learner-Control Strategy With Students of Differing Levels of Task Persistence
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“Unfortunately, as Flavell (1979) points out, learners are typically not good monitors of their own learning state, and they very often overestimate how much they actually know about a given topic.”
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“This finding corresponds to the developmental nature of SRL as secondary students tend to have a larger repertoire of strategies available to support their learning processes (Flavell, 1979; Flavell et al., 1995; Kuhn, 2000; Brown et al., 1996).”
ResultCritical Reasoning on Civic Issues
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“A distinction is made between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive control of experiences (Flavell, 1979, p. 907-909; Miller & Geraci, 2011, p. 303).”
BackgroundInfluentialToward an Operational Definition of Cross-Cultural Competence from Interview Data
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The role of metacognition in teaching clinical reasoning: Theory to practice
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“In this light, CBL enables the faculty and educator to uncover knowledge gaps and limitations in a student’s metacognitive regulation that ensure more proficient clinical problem-solving.[23]”
BackgroundInfluentialMarra, R. M., Hacker, D. J., & Plumb, C. (2021) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20437 · Cited by 55
“…a person's knowledge or beliefs about: (a) one's cognitive and affective states and the states of others; (b) a task, its demands, and how those demands can be met under varying conditions; and (c) strategies for accomplishing the task and how and when to use them (Flavell, 1979; Hacker, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe metacognitive-motivational links between stress and short-form video addiction
Sun, R., Zhang, M. X., Yeh, C., Ung, C. O. L., & Wu, A. M. S. (2024) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2024.102548 · Cited by 56
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“Metacognition refers to insight into one’s own cognitive experiences and processes [1,2]; in memory research, this knowledge is referred to as metamemory.”
BackgroundMartini, R., & Shore, B. M. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.08.004 · Cited by 54
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“Since the pioneering work of Flavell [3], the concept of metacognition has become inextricably linked with learning theories [4] and nearly equated with the construct of self-regulated learning in terms of planning, monitoring, and evaluation of learning and problem solving [5, 6].”
BackgroundPriceless conceptual thresholds: beyond the 'stuck place' in writing
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“Being aware of yourself as a writer, stuck or in full flow, is all part of metalearning in practice (Flavell 1979).”
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Metacognition, Personal Distress, and Performance-Based Empathy in Schizophrenia
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“It could be a sign that young children are still limited in their metacognition, especially in monitoring their own cognition and learning behavior (Bryce, Whitebread, & Szücs, 2015; Freeman, Karayanidis, & Chalmers, 2017; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundNieto-Márquez, N. L., Baldominos, A., & Nieto, M. Á. P. (2020) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci10040113 · Cited by 57
“Flavell [4,5] began to use the term metacognition in the 1980s, and its study has continued uninterruptedly since its consolidation in the 1980s and 1990s [1,6–10].”
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“Metacognition is defined as “knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena” (Flavell, 1979, p. 906).”
BackgroundDesigning Navigation Support in Hypertext Systems Based on Navigation Patterns
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The levels of metacognitive awareness of primary teacher trainees
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Global Versus Task-Specific Measures of Self-Efficacy
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“This phenomenon has been referred to as metacognition (e.g., Borkowski, Johnston, & Reid, 1986; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundLee, D. K. L., & Ramazan, O. (2021) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2021.1955312 · Cited by 47
“Essentially, metacognition is referred to a person’s conscious knowledge in realizing, comprehending, and regulating his/her cognitive process for evaluating the reasoning and achieving optimal learning (Flavell, 1979; Fox & Riconscente, 2008; Miller, 2017).”
BackgroundCattáneo, A., & Motta, E. (2020) · Vocations and Learning · doi:10.1007/s12186-020-09259-9 · Cited by 56
“‘Metacognition’ itself (Flavell 1979) is taken in its components as an indicator of reflection.”
BackgroundBecoming a teacher: Research on the work-integrated learning of student teachers
Botha, C., Botha, L., Bunt, B. J., Conley, L., Dieker, L., Gravett, S. J., Jagals, D., van Vuuren, H. J., Marais, E., Mentz, E., et al. (2020) · NWU self-directed learning series · doi:10.4102/aosis.2020.bk215 · Cited by 53
Updating beliefs beyond the here-and-now: the counter-factual self in anosognosia for hemiplegia
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“This ability is typically referred to as metacognition.(1,2) People may have different degrees of confidence (subjective uncertainty) about the”
Zohar, A. E., & Ben-Ari, G. (2022) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-022-09310-1 · Cited by 62
Beyond emotional intelligence: The new construct of meta-emotional intelligence
D’Amico, A., & Geraci, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1096663 · Cited by 74
“Metacognition had been defined by Flavell (1979) as the “knowledge about cognitive phenomena” and consisted of metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences, tasks or goals, and strategies.”
BackgroundInfluentialBaleghizadeh, S., & Rahimi, A. H. (2011) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.4304/tpls.1.1.61-67 · Cited by 54
“Flavell (1979) includes two dimensions of person knowledge: intraindividual differences and interindividual differences (knowledge of personal styles, abilities, and so forth, of oneself and of others), and universal of cognition (knowledge of human 'attributes influencing learning).”
BackgroundRahimi, M., & Katal, M. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.020 · Cited by 48
“According to Flavell (1979), the effective role of metacognitive knowledge in many cognitive activities related to language use is conspicuous, e.g., oral communication of information, oral persuasion, oral comprehension, reading comprehension, and writing, to language acquisition, and to various…”
BackgroundMacIntyre, T., & Moran, A. P. (2007) · Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity · doi:10.2202/1932-0191.1009 · Cited by 48
The role of goal orientation in leadership development
DeGeest, D. S., & Brown, K. G. (2011) · Human Resource Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/hrdq.20072 · Cited by 49
Jacobs, G. M. (2004) · Early Childhood Education Journal · doi:10.1023/b:ecej.0000039639.70536.13 · Cited by 48
“Flavell (1979) theorizes that metacognitive experi- Using the setting of the writers’ workshop seemed to provide a meaningful and natural environment inences—or those experiences that stimulate a child to do careful, conscious thinking—would lead to the growth which to nurture metacognitive thought…”
BackgroundResearching and developing the knowledge base for teaching higher order thinking
Underbakke, M., Borg, J., & Peterson, D. (1993) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405849309543589 · Cited by 57
The efficacy of Collaborative Strategic Reading in middle school science and social studies classes
Boardman, A. G., Klingner, J. K., Buckley, P. R., Annamma, S. A., & Lasser, C. J. (2015) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-015-9570-3 · Cited by 69
“With foundations in sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and cognitive psychology (Flavell, 1979), CSR includes explicit instruction, scaffolding, peer-mediated learning, and embedded supports for struggling readers and English language learners (ELLs).”
BackgroundStudents’ Metacognitive Awareness and Physics Learning Efficiency and Correlation between Them
Bogdanović, I. Z., Obadović, D. Ž., Cvjetičanin, S., Segedinac, M., & Budić, S. (2015) · European Journal Of Physics Education · doi:10.20308/ejpe.96231 · Cited by 54
“John Flavell originally came up with the term metamemory, and later the term metacognition and used it in the late 1970s with meaning “knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena,” or simpler “thinking about thinking” (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundThe use and effectiveness of interactive progressive drawing in anatomy education
Greene, S. J. (2018) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1784 · Cited by 49
“Metacognition is students’ self-monitoring and awareness of their own learning, and can include making adaptions in study strategies as needed (Flavell, 1979; Schraw and Denni-son, 1994; Winne and Hadwin, 1998).”
BackgroundRadmehr, F., & Drake, M. (2018) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2018.02.004 · Cited by 53
Jordano, M. L., & Touron, D. R. (2018) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-018-1490-1 · Cited by 50
Cumulative culture and explicit metacognition: a review of theories, evidence and key predictions
Dunstone, J., & Caldwell, C. A. (2018) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-018-0200-y · Cited by 51
“Metacognition, as originally defined by Flavell (1979), can be thought of as knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes, or cognition about cognition.”
BackgroundTeacher Metacognitions About Identities: Case Studies of Four Expert Language Teachers in China
Yuan, R. E., & Zhang, L. J. (2019) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.561 · Cited by 48
Muteti, C. Z., Zarraga, C., Jacob, B. I., Mwarumba, T. M., Nkhata, D. B., Mwavita, M., Mohanty, S., & Mutambuki, J. M. (2020) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d0rp00217h · Cited by 55
Karakelle, Ş., & Saraç, S. (2007) · Cited by 50
Metacognition and Open Learner Models
Susan Bull, A., & Kay, J. (2008) · Cited by 53
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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