Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry

“Flavell (1979) coined the term metacognition to indicate " one's stored knowledge or beliefs about oneself and others as cognitive agents, about tasks, about actions or strategies , about how all these interact to affect the outcomes of any sort of intellectual enterprise " (Flavell 1979, p.906).”

“Flavell (1979) de ned metacognition as either 1) knowledge or awareness of one’s cognitive processes, their operation and outcomes and 2) the conscious control or regulation of one’s own knowledge.”

“Such metacognitive abilities rely on a central executive that controls and optimizes one’s cognitive processes (e.g. Benjamin et al. 1998; Dunlosky and Bjork 2008; Flavell 1979; Nelson 1992; Schwartz 1994)”

“Recent studies discussed metacognition under three main components: Metacognitive knowledge (Flavell, 1979; Efklides, 2001), metacognitive control (Brown, 1980; Desoete and Roeyers, 2006; Sungur, 2007), and metacognitive experiences (Flavell, 1979; Efklides, 2008).”

“…in many circumstances (e.g., studying, test taking, game-show participation), and those judgments are often assumed to reflect humans’ metacognition (Benjamin, Bjork, & Schwartz, 1998; Dunlosky & Bjork, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Koriat & Goldsmith, 1994; Kornell, 2009; Nelson, 1992; Schwartz, 2008).”

“Metacognition was originally defined as knowledge or beliefs about thinking and strategies used to regulate and control thinking processes (Flavell, 1979).”

“Flavell (1979) conceptualized metacognition as the active, ongoing monitoring of one’s cognitive processes.”

“Metamemory encapsulates beliefs, sensations, and knowledge about memory function (eg, Flavell, 1979 ), including knowledge of factors affecting task difficulty, the memory abilities of others, and the effect of memory strategies (eg, Flavell, 1979 ; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 1993 ).”

“In their approach, on the bases of a cognitive-metacognitive framework of Garofalo and Lester (1985), Stillman and Galbraith (1998), reconstructed from videotapes and interviews, cognitive as well as metacognitive strategies used by students while working on an application task. They differentiated between strategies…”

“Before-study predictions reflect subjects’ prior memory knowledge and refer to the concept of metacognitive knowledge developed by Flavell (1979).”

“…to reflect and evaluate, both individually and collaboratively as necessitated by the process of creating a multimedia project, encourages students to be better learners as they become aware of their own thinking and monitor their own learning process (Flavell, 1979; Paris & Winograd, 1990).”

“Following the work of Flavell (1979 ; 1987) the study defined metacognitive knowledge (MK) as the knowledge of factors or variables that are likely to impact on an individual's learning.”

“Flavell (1979) defines metacognitive knowledge as the knowledge or beliefs of what variables act and interact in ways to affect the course and outcome of cognitive enterprises.”

“Metacognition refers to an individual’s ‘knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena’ (Flavell, 1979, p. 906), which was mainly divided into metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation.”

“This research, grounded in the cognitive writing theories (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Hayes, 2006; Kellogg, 1994), intends to explore Chinese student writers’ metacognitive awareness about EFL writing within the theoretical framework of metacognition (Flavell, 1979; Wenden, 1998; Zhang, 2010).”

“Drawing on the theory of an individual’s metacognitive processes (Brown, 1987; Efklides, 2006; Flavell, 1979; Nelson, 1996) and recent discussions about shared regulatory processes during collaborative learning (Hadwin, Oshige, Gress, & Winne, in press; Järvenoja & Järvelä, 2009), Hurme, Merenluoto, Salonen, and Järve…”

“Metacognition has been defined in various ways by different researchers (Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Flavell, 1976, 1979; Georghiades, 2004; Schraw, 1994; Swanson, 1990; Wenden, 1998).”

“Flavell (1976, 1979) considered metacognition as a very powerful predictor of learning performance.”

“There is also a well-described distinction between metacognitive knowledge (knowing about what you know) and metacognitive processes (knowing how to regulate what you know) (Flavell, 1979; Schraw & Moshman, 1995).”

“Some researchers have divided metacognition into two types of processes (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1979; Myers & Paris, 1978): Metacognitive”

“One only needs to think of the obsessive client who is "paralyzed by incessant critical evaluations of his own judgments and decisions" (Flavell, 1979).”

“To enhance the learning environments in higher education, it is important to consider other forms of learning in which metacognition (knowledge about and regulation of one’s cognitive activities in learning processes; Flavell, 1979) is developed in new and authentic situations.”

“Metacognition, de fi ned as thinking about one ’ s own thinking (Flavell, 1979), connects to how learners regulate mental efforts for relevant activities.”

“Flavell (1976, 1979) suggests that metacognition is the monitoring and control of cognitive processes such as memory, comprehension and learning in activities that require applying stepwise, or algorithmic, strategies to reach goals or complete tasks.”

“MK and ME are manifestations of the monitoring function, while MS are manifestations of the control function (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979) (see also Table 1 of Efklides, 2006, p. 4).”

“to critically evaluate one’s own understanding and learning processes (Flavell 1979).”

“The term metacognition was introduced in the 1970s by Flavell ( 1979 ) to encompass learners' knowledge of their own cognition.”

“Theoretically, confidence ratings are considered to be one indicator of procedural meta-memory monitoring, that is, monitoring of the cognitive operations taking place while carrying out a task, as opposed to declarative general knowledge about learning and memory (Flavell, 1979).”

“…reliance on a priori metacognitive knowledge will stagnate the long-term development of more accurate strategy knowledge because feedback from monitored learning outcomes is the presumed primary means by which errors in strategy knowledge are revised (Flavell, 1979 ; Winne & Hadwin, 1998 ) .”

“Metacognition of L2 Speech (5 variables): Metacognition refers to the conscious awareness of one’s own mental processes (Flavell, 1979).”

“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”

“As our understanding of this acquisition process improved, researchers widened their focus to include other aspects of cognitive development, such as metacognition, i.e., ‘‘knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena’’ ( Flavell 1979, p. 906 ); they investigated how motivational components such as achievement go…”

“Flavell [7] was one of the first to use the term.”

“Metacognition includes two components: a declarative component covering the knowledge that someone has about one’s own cognitions (metacognitive knowledge) as well as a procedural component, regarding the learner’s control of strategy use and learning ( metacognitive control; Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition refers to the cognitive processes involved in thinking about thinking (Flavell, 1979) and incorporates how we monitor and control, slave cognitive mechanisms (Frith, 2012).”

“Students' metacognitive skills, general goal orientation (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Stankov & Lee, 2008), and time management practices are also circumscribed by this category (see Liu, Rijmen, MacCann, & Roberts, 2009).”

“Labels that refer to similar, albeit broader abilities are for example metacognition (Flavell, 1979) and social cognition (Adolphs, 2003).”

“Decades ago, Flavell (1979) posited that when individuals monitor and reflect on their ability to articulate information, for example in writing, it can support their learning and critical thinking during school and reallife enterprises.”

“From a cognitive perspective, metacognition is the high-order cognition that regulate thinking and problem-solving (for example, Flavell 1979, Garner 1987, Schraw and Moshman 1995).”

“All of these accounts require some degree of capacity for metacognitive monitoring and control, capacities that are slow to develop and still maturing during the elementary school years (Flavell, 1979).”

“Here, metacognition is defined as one’s ability to regulate cognitive processes and is strongly related to learning outcomes (Coutinho, 2006; Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition marks a level of self-awareness that allows learners to be self-critical and to self-assess as they move forward in their learning (Flavell 1979).”

“Metacognition is knowledge or awareness of one’s own knowledge (e.g. Flavell, 1979).”

“Task planning and reflective assessment also intertwines with the actor’s metacognitive process, and the task itself [Flavell 1979].”

“Following the seminal work of John Flavell and his collaborators (Flavell, 1979; Flavell, Beach, & Chinsky, 1966), however, others have attempted to establish the pre-eminent role of metacognition in children's developing abilities to think and learn.”

“Before 1970s, listening was only considered as a receptive skill (Johnson, 2008, p. 299) where students listened to repeat and develop a better pronunciation (Vandergrift, 2011).”

“These findings again underline the major contribution of cognitive and metacognitive processes in problem-solving situations (Brown et al., 1983; Flavell, 1979; Pressley & Hilden, 2006).”

“Metacognition derives from the ideas of Flavell (1979), who identifies three components: first, the self and others as learners; second, tasks and goals and recognition that different tasks make different types of cognitive demand; and third, strategies to be used to solve identified problems and…”

“The main focus of the new research was on the active role of the reader in the reading comprehension process (Baker & Brown, 1984; Flavell, 1979; Garner, 1987).”

“Typically, metacognition refers to the ability to reflect consciously on one’s cognition and the cognitive abilities of others (Flavell, 1979).”

“This model distinguishes two levels of processing, which include three types of metacognitive phenomena differentiated by Flavell (1979) (see Figure 5).”

“Metacognition can be generally understood as thinking about thinking, including the ability to regulate one’s own mental processes and activity (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognitive strategies explain how self-regulation occurs, whereas metacognitive knowledge consists of knowledge of strategy, task and person variables (Flavell, 1979).”