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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
Knowing when, where, and how to remember ; A problem of metacognition
Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
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Developmental changes in memorization processes
Flavell, J. H., Friedrichs, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. (1970) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90019-8 · Cited by 401
Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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Muñoz, C. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511667275.014 · Cited by 44
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Schrader, D. E. (2004) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1023/b:jade.0000024542.67919.55 · Cited by 43
“Through the development of metacognitive awareness of thought processes (Schrader, 1988, 1999, 2003), assumptions of knowledge (King and Kitchener, 1994), and cognitive knowledge, tasks, and experiences ( Flavell, 1979 ), teachers can learn to recognize, interpret, and act on moral and epistemic issues and conflicts t…”
BackgroundLearning and Memory Strategies in the Mentally Retarded
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“Third, mastery of the internal state lexicon may also foster greater readiness for school because many academic skills require the cognitive monitoring that internal state language labels (e.g., Brewer & Lichtenstein, 1982; Flavell, 1978, 1979; Hall & Nagy, 1986; Palincsar & Brown, 1984).”
BackgroundRueda, R. S., & Mehan, H. B. (1986) · Anthropology & Education Quarterly · doi:10.1525/aeq.1986.17.3.04x0568v · Cited by 44
Revision and Reflection: A Study of (Dis)Connections between Writing Knowledge and Writing Practice
Lindenman, H., Camper, M., Jacoby, L. D., & Enoch, J. (2018) · College Composition and Communication · doi:10.58680/ccc201829693 · Cited by 43
Self-perception of driving abilities in older age: A systematic review
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What Were You Thinking? Medical Students’ Metacognition and Perceptions of Self-Regulated Learning
Versteeg, M., Bressers, G., Wijnen-Meijer, M., Ommering, B. W. C., de Beaufort, A. J., & Steendijk, P. (2021) · Teaching and Learning in Medicine · doi:10.1080/10401334.2021.1889559 · Cited by 42
Taxonomies in Education: Overview, Comparison, and Future Directions
Irvine, J. (2021) · Journal of Education and Development · doi:10.20849/jed.v5i2.898 · Cited by 57
“Flavell (1979) is credited with coining the term metacognition, frequently described as “thinking about thinking.””
BackgroundIdea Generation, Selection, and Evaluation: A Metacognitive Approach
Puente‐Díaz, R., Cavazos‐Arroyo, J., & Puerta‐Sierra, L. (2021) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.505 · Cited by 41
Kessler, M. (2021) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2021.1968914 · Cited by 60
“…are a staple of many teacher training and development programs due to their reported benefits in increasing individuals’ metacognition (e.g. Alt & Raichel, 2020; Lang, 2018; Lomicka & Ducate, 2021), which refers to learners’ own awareness of their thinking and thought processes (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluentialMetacognition research in mathematics education: from hot topic to mature field
Stillman, G. A., & Mevarech, Z. R. (2010) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-010-0245-x · Cited by 43
“Since Flavell (1976, 1979, 1981) and his colleagues initiated research into metacognition, the use of the term proliferated until there was an extensive ‘‘family of concepts that [were] often referred to generically as metacognition’’ (Brown, 1987, p. 109).”
BackgroundHoogeveen, M., & van Gelderen, A. J. S. (2013) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9229-z · Cited by 44
Metacognition and mindreading: one or two functions?
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“First, comparative evidence suggests that non-human primates (including monkeys) 3 Flavell (1979).4 Perner & Ruffman (1995).”
BackgroundKiesewetter, J., Ebersbach, R., Tsalas, N. R. H., Holzer, M., Schmidmaier, R., & Fischer, M. R. (2016) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-016-0821-z · Cited by 46
“While handling a case, medical students or doctors are able to externalize their thoughts about the strategies of problem-solving or their application of knowledge [11].”
BackgroundTsiriotakis, I. K., Vassilaki, Ε., Spantidakis, Ι., & Stavrou, N. A. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02074 · Cited by 57
“The most common conceptualization that has emerged defines metacognition as the knowledge and control individuals have over their own cognition and learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundChan, M., & Blikstein, P. (2018) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1746 · Cited by 44
“Finally, for reflecting, there is an emphasis on metacognition (Flavell, 1979), which is closely connected to the significance of learner agency in constructionism.”
BackgroundRadmehr, F., & Drake, M. (2018) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2018.1549336 · Cited by 61
“Flavell [14] highlighted that metacognitive knowledge ‘consists primarily of knowledge or beliefs about what factors act and interact in what ways to affect the course and outcome of cognitive enterprises’ (p.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Psychology of Following Instructions and Its Implications
Dunham, S., Lee, E., & Persky, A. M. (2020) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe7779 · Cited by 51
“Metacognition has been described as thinking about thinking.(23) At its core, it is about planning, monitoring making progress, and evaluating the completion of a process.”
BackgroundExamination of the Relationship between Cyberbullying and Cyber Victimization
Durak, H. Y., & Sarıtepeci, M. (2020) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-020-01768-4 · Cited by 48
“Metacognitive awareness means the understanding, awareness, and control of the cognitive processes of the individual as well as the control and awareness of his own thoughts (Schraw and Dennison 1994; Flavell 1979).”
BackgroundHarren, N., Walburg, V., & Chabrol, H. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100117 · Cited by 53
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“Another explanation for over-confidence may be related to the relationship between metamemory beliefs and the use of beliefs during a learning experience [13].”
BackgroundMayer, J. S., & Park, S. (2012) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028836 · Cited by 43
“It might also be argued that the increased rate of false memories in PSZ was a consequence of deficits in metamemory (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundRezvan, S., Ahmadi, S. A., & Abedi, M. R. (2006) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070601106471 · Cited by 43
“According to Flavell ( 1979 , 1987 ), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation.”
BackgroundOpportunities and Challenges in Using Learning Analytics in Learning Design
Schmitz, M., van Limbeek, E. B. M., Greller, W., Sloep, P., & Drachsler, H. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-66610-5_16 · Cited by 45
“This could – if guided properly and if the student is able to reflect and act upon the information using metacognitive competences [7] – enable them to adapt their learning behavior to become more effective or efficient.”
BackgroundGruppen, L. D., & Frohna, A. Z. (2002) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-0462-6_8 · Cited by 60
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“Researchers have agreed that these processes, which overcome serious conceptual change problems are influenced by motivational (e.g. Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003) and metacognitive (Flavell, 1979) processes.”
BackgroundStrategy selection as rational metareasoningPreprint
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Childhood trauma and disordered eating: Exploring the role of alexithymia and beliefs about emotions
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Chapter 1: The feasibility of grafting self-directed learning theory onto the capability theory
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Alshammari, T. K., Alseraye, S., Alqasim, R., Rogowska, A. M., Al-Rasheed, N. M., & Alshammari, M. A. (2022) · Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.jsps.2022.01.010 · Cited by 46
“At the end of the 1970s, the termmetacognition was introduced and defined by Flavell (Flavell, 1979) as ‘‘higher-order thinking to actively control the cognitive processes engaged in thinking and acquiring knowledge.””
BackgroundPickerell, L., Pennington, K., Cartledge, C., Miller, K. A., & Curtis, F. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02131-6 · Cited by 75
“Metacognitive approaches, getting children to think about their thinking (Flavell, 1979), offer a way to generate curiosity of cognitive processes that can bring about greater understanding of evaluation and self-reflection (Larkin, 2010).”
BackgroundLin, S., Tan, L., Chen, X., Liao, Z., Li, Y., Tang, Y., Shi, Y., Hao, J., Wang, X., Huang, Q., et al. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.08.077 · Cited by 52
Cognitive Flexibility and Epistemic Validation in Learning from Multiple Texts
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The role of core self-evaluation, ethnocentrism, and cultural intelligence in study abroad success
Barbuto, J. E., Beenen, G., & Tran, H. N. (2015) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2015.07.004 · Cited by 49
Performance, Feedback, and Revision: Metacognitive Approaches to Undergraduate Essay Writing
Riddell, J. (2015) · Collected Essays on Learning and Teaching · doi:10.22329/celt.v8i0.4256 · Cited by 47
“A metacognitive approach to essay writing encourages students to be aware of their own cognitive and affective processes, and develop the ability to monitor and regulate their strategic approaches to learning (Flavell, 1979; Hacker, Dunlosky, & Graesser, 1998).”
BackgroundMetacognition and motivation: Links between confidence, self-protection and self-enhancement
Jiang, Y., & Kleitman, S. (2014) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.025 · Cited by 41
Improving metacognitive accuracy: How failing to retrieve practice items reduces overconfidence
Miller, T. M., & Geraci, L. D. (2014) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.08.008 · Cited by 41
“Flavell (1979) formalized the term and investigated the phenomena from a developmental perspective.”
Teaching electronic circuits online: Lessons from MITx's 6.002x on edX
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“The questions were also designed to allow students to monitor their levels of subject expertise, and to not move on before they reach a sufficient level of mastery, based on research which suggests this can dramatically improve effectiveness of learning [10], [11].”
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“Metacognition refers to the knowledge of cognitive processes and products and includes reflecting on one’s own thoughts or cognition about cognition (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundEmpowering ESL Readers with Metacognitive Reading Strategies
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Metacognition in L2 Listening: Clarifying Instructional Theory and Practice
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“The definitions of metacognition (Costa, 1984; Flavell, 1979; Mevarech, Tabuk, & Sinai, 2006) have been mostly conceptualized around two processes: knowledge about one’s own cognition and regulation of cognitive activities.”
BackgroundBarr, S., & Askell‐Williams, H. (2019) · Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/1359866x.2019.1599098 · Cited by 51
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“Metacognition, according to Flavell (1979), refers to an awareness of one's own cognitive processes along with controlled regulation of mental activities.”
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“Flavell (1979), when theorising about cognitive monitoring, explained the importance of ‘metacognitive experiences’, such as puzzlement, problem solving and critical thinking, in helping us develop our existing knowledge (p. 908).”
BackgroundYoung Children's Detection of Violations in Familiar Stories and Emerging Comprehension Monitoring
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“Furthermore, they are all part of the metacognitive knowledge base that must be acquired to monitor comprehension (Flavell, 1992).”
BackgroundIndividual differences in feelings of difficulty: The case of school mathematics
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“This kind of knowledge allows us to form and test hypotheses about the functioning of cognition and metacognition (Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994) but also to understand how these experiences monitor performance (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983; Flavell, 1979; Yussen, 1985).”
BackgroundAssessing Students' Metacognitive Skills
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“The pilot study was designed to address 4 questions: (1) Since all items on each part of the test were intended to assess only one skill, did all items on each part of the test actually assess the same metacognitive or information processing skill? (2) Was the test reliable and did items discriminate between the stude…”
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“Those who have relative difficulty with reading comprehension do comparatively little monitoring (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Paris & Winograd, 1990).”
BackgroundPsychometric Properties of the Theory of Mind Assessment Scale in a Sample of Adolescents and Adults
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“Adaptability requires metacognition, which involves processes such as analyzing the situation, monitoring and evaluating one's learning progress, and controlling how to allocate one's resources and the prioritization of activities (Flavell, 1979; Schmidt & Ford, 2003).”
BackgroundWhat does it take to make a change? Teacher feedback and student revisions
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“The metacognitive strategies are higher-order thinking strategies that involve self-reflection, self-questioning and evaluation, leading to a formulation of metacognitive knowledge (Flavell, 1976, 1979).”
Inside the Creative Sifter: Recognizing Metacognition in Creativity Development
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“There have been many developments and interpretations of the formal elements of metacognition in the time since Flavell’s classic paper on metacognition [1].”
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“Meta-Cognition has been defined as “knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena” (Flavell, 1979, p. 906), “knowledge about the nature of people as cognizers” (Flavell, 1999, p.22) and the knowledge of reflection and analysis of thought (Downing, 2009).”
BackgroundEmbedding Cultural Literacy in Higher Education: a new approach
Ochoa, G. G., McDonald, S., & Monk, N. (2016) · Intercultural Education · doi:10.1080/14675986.2016.1241551 · Cited by 41
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Cognition and cognizance in preschool predict school achievement in primary school
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“Metacognitive experiences, the focus of investigation in this article, include cognitive experiences and affective experiences in the cognitive process (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPishghadam, R., & Khajavy, G. H. (2012) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.004 · Cited by 41
“According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition entails metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation of cognition.”
BackgroundInfluentialMonitoring processes and metamemory experience in patients with dysexecutive syndrome
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“Flavell (1979) proposed a distinction between metacognitive knowledge, which refers to the knowledge or beliefs about the general characteristics of memory functioning, and metacognitive experience, which refers to the knowledge of the proprieties of one s own memory.”
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“To this extent, this system has been described as responsible for the ‘executive control of all processes’ (Flavell, 1979, 1987; Brown, 1978, 1987).”
MethodStimulating Statistical Thinking through Situated Simulations
Derry, S. J., Levin, J. R., & Schauble, L. (1995) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15328023top2201_16 · Cited by 41
“The purpose of this approach is to facilitate development of students' propensity and ahility to reflect on and evaluate their thinking (e.g., A. L. Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundTaylor, R. T. (2012) · ProQuest LLC eBooks · Cited by 41
The Regulation of Task Performance: A Trans-Disciplinary Review
Clark, I., & Dumas, G. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01862 · Cited by 46
“Keywords: meta-cognition, self-regulation, self-efficacy, self-reflection, prefrontal cortex INTRODUCTION Meta-cognitive processes were first discussed by psychologists interested in strategies for improving memory and the recall of information (Flavell, 1976, 1979; Flavell and Wellman, 1977).”
BackgroundMethodSaks, K., Ilves, H., & Noppel, A. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11100598 · Cited by 49
Modeling from a cognitive perspective: theoretical considerations and empirical contributions
Schukajlow, S., Kaiser, G., & Stillman, G. A. (2021) · Mathematical Thinking and Learning · doi:10.1080/10986065.2021.2012631 · Cited by 40
“In a broader sense, metacognition refers to knowledge about one’s cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundSun, Q., & Zhang, L. J. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03416-0 · Cited by 40
“Metacognitive experiences involve both cognitive and affective facets that can influence the learning process and outcomes (Flavell, 1979; Teng, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialDennis, J. L., & Somerville, M. P. (2022) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-022-00904-x · Cited by 64
Wei, L., Liu, C., & Tseng, J. C. R. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11671-2 · Cited by 49
“Moreover, planning, monitoring, and evaluation are at the heart of metacognition (Dirkes, 1985; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundResearch on Teaching and Learning in Access Courses
Holtman, L. B., & Rollnick, M. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3224-9_6 · Cited by 39
Karagiannidis, Y., Barkoukis, V., Gourgoulis, V., Kosta, G., & Antonıou, P. (2015) · Motricidade · doi:10.6063/motricidade.3661 · Cited by 47
Development of the Cultural Intelligence Assessment
Thomas, D. C., Stahl, G. K., Ravlin, E. C., Poelmans, S., Pekerti, A., Maznevski, M. L., Lazarova, M. B., Elron, E., Ekelund, B. Z., Cerdin, J., et al. (2012) · Advances in global leadership · doi:10.1108/s1535-1203(2012)0000007011 · Cited by 40
Salah, S., Damirchi, E. S., Sedghi, N., & Sabayan, B. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.651 · Cited by 40
Awareness development for online reading
Zenotz, V. (2012) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658416.2011.639893 · Cited by 40
“According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition includes metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences, tasks and goals, and strategies or actions.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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