Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry

“…to be highly relevant for metacognition (e.g., Funke, 2003; Ifenthaler, 2012; Huber, 1995; Mayer, 1998), which is the “cognition that reflects on, monitors, or regulates first order cognition” (Kuhn, 2000, p. 178; see also Flavell, 1979; Kleitman, & Gibson, 2011; Schraw, Crippen, & Hartley, 2006).”

“the great practical relevance of uncertainty monitoring and its theoretical aspects (Flavell, 1979; Schneider, 1998), very few studies have addressed the question of its developmental progression.”

“A priori beliefs about fluency (as compared to experienced fluency) (Flavell 1979; Kardash and Howell 2000; Koriat 1997; Schommer 1990).”

“Theory and research in metacognition has evolved in the areas of developmental and cognitive psychology (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Nelson & Narens, 1990), and has recently been introduced as a basis for understanding and treating psychological dysfunction (Wells & Matthews, 1994, 1996).”

“This line of work, however, only properly took off when Flavell (1979) outlined a framework in which he identified metacognitive experiences as a distinctive facet of meta-cognition.”

“Metacognitions refer to ‘‘knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena’’ (p. 906, Flavell 1979), for example ‘‘concentrating very hard will help me remember’’ or ‘‘that was a strange thought’’.”

“Because the process of metacognition often occurs at a subconscious level (Flavell, 1979), it is important to begin intentionally developing positive metacognitive practices early in life starting with basic knowledge of cognition.”

“…(P-value) Average correlation coefficient 2013 (n 5 30) 23:7 51.2 (615.3) 5.8 (61.5) 0.42 (0.02) 0.44 2014 (n 5 57) 39:18 46.2 (613.7) 5.6 (61.8) 0.41 (0.001) 2015 (n 5 87) 54:33 50.6 (614.7) 5.2 (61.8) 0.58 ( 0.0001) strategies and procedural knowledge about learning activities (Flavell, 1979).”

““Metacognition: An expanded view on the cognitive abilities of L2 learners”, in Language Learning, 37, 4: 573-597. Wenden, A. L. (1998). “Metacognitive knowledge and language learning”, in Applied Linguistics, 19, 4: 515-537. Willing, K. (1990). Teaching how to learn. Sydney, Australia: National Center for English Lan…”

“They monitor their knowledge states, assess the strength of their memories, seek information when needed, and can provide assessments of their confidence about most things (Dunlosky & Bjork, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Metcalfe & Kober, 2005; Nelson, 1992; Schwartz, 2008).”

“Inspired by Flavell’s (1979) preliminary question, “how”

“Metacognition can broadly be defined as knowledge and processes that are involved in the appraisal, control, or monitoring of thinking (Flavell, 1979).”

“This has also been termed metacognition, and can be defined as one’s own knowledge, monitoring, and control of cognitive processes (Fernandez-Duque, Baird, & Posner, 2000; Flavell, 1979).”

“It was claimed that the individual, task and strategy variables, and the interaction among these variables have significant roles on the formation of metacognitive knowledge (Flavell, 1979; Veenman, 2005).”

“In this perspective, SA is conceptualized as metacognitive beliefs about oneself that are based on past experiences, culture and values (Fitzgerald, Arvaneh, & Dockree, 2017a; Flavell, 1979; Kennedy & Coelho, 2005).”

“(Flavell, 1979, p. 908) Thus, metacognitive reflection is theorized to be a major part of one’s learning process, as the learner contemplates their level of comprehension of both new and old content in order to complete tasks and goals.”

“Metacognitive strategies are mainly used to monitor progress (Flavell, 1979).”

“…K-W-L chart (Bailey, 2017), Frayer Model (Buehl, 2001; Frayer et al., 1969; Keeley, 2013; Wickens & Parker, 2019), self-assessment card (Keeley & Tobey, 2011), card mapping the learning process (Szarka, 2017), metacognition (Flavell, 1979; Livingston, 1997), exit card (He, 2019; Keeley, 2013;)”

“That said, metacognition is an individual’s process of planning, monitoring, and assessing their understanding and performance and an individual’s awareness of their thinking and learning, and perceiving themselves as thinkers and learners (Flavell, 1979).”

“The term meta-cognition was originally coined and popularized by Flavell (1979) especially in the context of developmental and educational psychology.”

“In a seminal paper on the topic, Flavell ( 1979 ) suggested that individuals' awareness of cognition consisted of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences.”

“Importantly, in the model, confidence is computed using a simple neural signal in individual trials, without explicit representation of probability functions.”

“Metacognition is individuals’ storing information in their mind, comprehending and relating it with other information and monitoring other cognitive activities (Flavell, 1979).”

“…and psychological distress/negative affect could be metacognition, which refers to “… knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena …” (Flavell, 1979, p.906), including the processes, knowledge, and beliefs involved in the regulation of thought (Wells & Cartwright-Hatton, 2004).”

“It was encouraging from their responses that students indicated that they were developing metacognitive thinking [5].”

“Flavell (1979) has made the distinction that while cognitive strategies are invoked to make cognitive progress, metacognitive strategies are used to monitor this progress.”

“…that metacognitive knowledge (MK) plays the most significant role in the whole cognitive monitoring process because it deals with “knowledge or beliefs about what factors or variables act and interact in what ways to affect the course and outcome of cognitive enterprises” (Flavell, 1979, p. 907).”

“Early work on metacognition, such as studies by Flavell (1979), focused primarily on the role of metamemory in learning.”

“Initially a developmental concept 1 , metacognition has been investigated in the context of education 2 , eyewitness memory 3 and memory impairments 4 .”

“Metacognition involves, then, our knowing about own cognitive processes and our capacity to regulate and change our basic mental models and beliefs (Flavell, 1979).”

“In his seminal work, Flavell (1979) distinguished between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences: Metacognitive knowledge describes knowledge or beliefs about the interaction of different factors and their influence on the outcomes of cognitive processes.”

“Such conscious control of behavior in response to the subjective feeling of uncertainty is a hallmark of metacognition (e.g., Dunlosky& Bjork, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Koriat&Goldsmith, 1994; Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994; Nelson, 1992; Schwartz, 1994), and is a crucial cognitive capacity that affects…”

“Metacognition has been defined as “knowledge or cognition about cognitive phenomena” (Flavell, 1979) or “thinking about thinking” (Frith, 2012).”

“En effet, depuis l’introduction par Flavell (1979) du concept de « métacognition », il apparaît que les activités scolaires nécessitent la mise en place par l’apprenant de stratégies qui vont lui permettre de réguler son apprentissage (Pintrich, 27 © L 'H ar m at ta n | T él éc ha rg é le 1 6/…”

“Metacognition, simply defined as ‘‘cognition about cognition,’’ refers to the aspect of information processing that monitors, interprets, evaluates, and regulates the contents and processes of its own organization (Flavell, 1979; Wells, 2009).”

“A student’s metacognitive abilities refer to his or her active control in thinking or reasoning about thinking, and thinking about how one learns (Flavell 1979).”

“It can be defined as awareness of one’s own thinking and learning (Flavell 1979; Pintrich 2002; Schraw et al. 2006).”

“Metacognition was originally defined as cognition about cognition [3,4].”

“…errors in metacognitive processes (i.e. © 2017 The International Association of Applied Psychology knowledge about cognition and control of cognition; Flavell, 1979), as well as to negative stereotypes about cognitive age-related processes (Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008; for a metanalysis see…”

“Metacognition involves one’s knowledge or cognitions about cognitive phenomena (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metarecognition is a strategy to adequately apply acquired knowledge to problem-solving by recognizing and adjusting its thinking process [30].”

“As posited, the child’s greater self-regulated learning capacities can also be assumed to result from the heightened levels of metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experience and metacognitive control (Flavell, 1979; Brown, 1987) acquired throughout the intervention and later peer tutoring.”

“For example, the relation of knowledge types (factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge [30], [16]) and meta cognitive knowledge and regulation [31,32] to the cognitive actions, the completion of the model and the solution of the case should be investigated.”

“Meta-cognition, commonly referred to as ‘ thinking about thinking ’ (Flavell, 1979), includes both the knowledge and regulation of cognitive activity (Moses & Baird, 1999).”

“She also stressed the importance of students’ awareness of mental processes (metacognitive knowledge) as identified in Flavell’s (1979 in Goh, 1997) typology to language learning, such as “person knowledge,” “task knowledge,” and “strategic knowledge.” Vandergrift (2003) also studied the relationship between the types…”

“Flavell’s initial conceptualisation (1979) broke metacognition apart into four types: metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experience, cognitive goals and strategies.”

“Flavell (1979) differentiated between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience, although these often overlap.”

“…a student may know that monitoring one’s activities is necessary and yet refrain from doing so for various reasons’ (Veenman & Verheij, 2003, p. 907) whilst in the latter ‘task orientation, planning, monitoring, checking, and reflection are manifestations of such skills’ (Flavell, 1979, p. 261).”

“Universal Journal of Educational Research 8(8): 3698-3703, 2020 http://www.”

“…the psychological study of decision-making has increasingly been investigated in the realm of ‘meta’cognition– the set of processes involved in consciously evaluating or reflecting upon first-order cognitive processes (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Flavell, 1979; Nelson, 1990; Shea et al., 2014).”

“Among these, metacognitive cultural intelligence is a psychological ability to think about the personal thinking process, predict other people’s cultural preferences, and adjust psychological models during and after the cross-cultural experience (Flavell, 1979).”

“The acquired feedback from educators and learning materials further allow for re fl ection and deep thinking (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition—the ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate one’s thinking—is critical for problem-solving and conceptual understanding in STEM contexts (Flavell 1979; Tanner 2017).”

“Metacognitive knowledge is defined as knowledge about one’s cognitive processes (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979).”

“limitations, including factors that may interact to affect cognition [2].”

“Metacognition in humans is central to thinking, memory, comprehension, and decision making (Dunlosky & Bjork, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Koriat & Goldsmith, 1994; Nelson, 1992).”