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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
Knowing when, where, and how to remember ; A problem of metacognition
Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
Perspectives on the Development of Memory and Cognition
Kail, R. V., & Hagen, J. W. (1977) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 927
An Interview Study of Children's Knowledge about Memory
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
Markman, E. M. (1977) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1977.tb01257.x · Cited by 415
Developmental changes in memorization processes
Flavell, J. H., Friedrichs, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. (1970) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90019-8 · Cited by 401
Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
Cited by
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“The first attempts to define the domain of metacognition were made by Flavell (1979), who proposed a model of metacognition whose key concept was " metacognitive knowledge " , which refers to what people perceive and think about how the mind works when engaged in comprehending, memorising and…”
BackgroundSkilled but unaware of it: CAT undermines a test taker's metacognitive competence
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BackgroundNevill, M. A. (2008) · Cited by 10
Does Metacognitive Instruction Improve Listening Comprehension?
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“Metacognition refers to thinking about thinking, or cognitions about other cognitions (Cohen et al. 1996; Dunloslky and Metcalf 2009; Flavell 1979).”
BackgroundMETACOGNITIVE AWARENESS OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS
Başer, V. G. (2011) · Cited by 10
Metacognition in group problem solving—a quest for socially shared metacognition
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Murphey, T., & Kenny, T. (1998) · Cited by 10
Metacognition in Higher Education
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Applying Metacognitive Strategies to Skimming Research Articles in an ESP Context.
Dhieb-Henia, N. (2006) · English Teaching Forum · Cited by 10
박선희, Choi, M., & LEE, S.-K. (2008) · Journal of Engineering Education Research · doi:10.18108/jeer.2008.11.1.5 · Cited by 10
Qin, C., & Teng, M. F. (2017) · Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1515/cjal-2017-0015 · Cited by 10
“Metacognition, according to Flavell (1979), refers to an appreciation of the knowledge of one’s own cognitive system, together with a regulation of relevant knowledge and skill that it requires.”
BackgroundImproving Clinical Nursing Judgment in Prelicensure Students
Victor, J. (2017) · Journal of Nursing Education · doi:10.3928/01484834-20171120-05 · Cited by 10
Improving reading comprehension using metacognitive strategies
Usman, B., Aziz, Z. A., & Absida, N. R. (2017) · Jurnal Natural (Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Syiah Kuala University) · Cited by 10
Figueira, A. P. C. (2003) · Revista Iberoamericana de Educación · doi:10.35362/rie3312947 · Cited by 10
Öğretmen Adaylarının Okuma Stratejilerini Kullanma Düzeyleri
Özdemir, S. (2018) · Bartın University Journal of Faculty of Education · doi:10.14686/buefad.381007 · Cited by 10
Metacognição e as relações com o saber
Corrêa, N. N. G., Passos, M. M., & Arruda, S. D. M. (2018) · Ciência & Educação (Bauru) · doi:10.1590/1516-731320180020016 · Cited by 10
The Role of Teacher Regulatory Talk in Students’ Self-Regulation Development Across Cultures
Torres, P. E., Whitebread, D., & McLellan, R. (2018) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20259 · Cited by 11
Metacognitive Knowledge of a Student in Planning the Solution of Limit Problems
Pathuddin, P., Budayasa, I. K., & Lukito, A. (2018) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1108/1/012032 · Cited by 10
da Rosa, C. T. W., & Ghiggi, C. M. (2018) · Investigações em Ensino de Ciências · doi:10.22600/1518-8795.ienci2018v23n3p31 · Cited by 10
Putting post-decision wagering to the test: a measure of self-perceived knowledge in basic sciences?
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Examining underconfidence among high-performing students: A test of the false consensus hypothesis.
Tirso, R., Geraci, L. D., & Saenz, G. D. (2019) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2019.04.003 · Cited by 10
Metacognitive Awareness in the System of Students Mental Self-Regulation
Бызова, В. М., Perikova, E. I., & Lovyagina, А. Е. (2019) · Sibirskiy psikhologicheskiy zhurnal · doi:10.17223/17267080/73/8 · Cited by 10
Pilotti, M., Alaoui, K. E., Mulhem, H. A., & Kuhayli, H. A. A. (2019) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v15i4.1921 · Cited by 10
“Thus, to induce metacognitive awareness (Flavell, 1979) of what is known and what is not known, students are asked to predict their test and class performance (functional confidence) and report their degree of trust in the predictions made (subjective confidence) at four different times during the semester.”
BackgroundJang, Y., Choi, E. Y., Franco, Y., Park, N. S., Chiriboga, D. A., & Kim, M. T. (2021) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.1899132 · Cited by 10
“Little is known about self-rated cognitive health (Flavell, 1979; Jang et al., 2020), even though a growing number of national and international surveys include a single-item self-rating of cognition or memory (e.g. Borda et al., 2019; Cutler, 2015; Hill & Mogle, 2018).”
BackgroundVeenman, M. V. J., Hesselink, R. D., Sleeuwaegen, S., Liem, S. I. E., Haaren, M. G. P. V., & Haaren, V. (2014) · Psihologijske teme · Cited by 10
Salvetti, F., & Bertagni, B. (2014) · International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning (iJAC) · doi:10.3991/ijac.v7i3.4033 · Cited by 10
Cost Prediction and Software Project Management
Shepperd, M. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55035-5_3 · Cited by 9
Cognitive Rehabilitation Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Children
Ylvisaker, M., Szekeres, S. F., & Hartwick, P. (1992) · Advances in child neuropsychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9145-6_6 · Cited by 9
Development and Validation of an Objective Measure of Metacognition
Tobias, S., & Everson, H. T. (1995) · Cited by 10
O’Shea, M. F., Saling, M. M., & Bladin, P. F. (1994) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/01688639408402675 · Cited by 10
Shavinina, L. V. (2001) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.5.3.291 · Cited by 11
“…cognitive processes and phenomena are viewed as important in contemporary accounts of human intelligence and creativity (Brown, 1978, 1984; Flavell, 1976, 1979; Kholodnaya, 1997; Mumford, in press; Runco & Albert, 1990; Shavinina & Kholodnaya, 1996; Stern-berg, 1984, 1985, 1988a, 1988b,…”
BackgroundClinical decision making and therapeutic approaches of experienced osteopaths
Thomson, O. P. (2013) · University of Brighton Repository (University of Brighton) · Cited by 10
Metacognition: Developing Self-Knowledge Through Guided Reflection
Wiezbicki-Stevens, K. (2022) · Scholarworks (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · doi:10.7275/1079067 · Cited by 9
Margrain, V. (2005) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.16945468.v1 · Cited by 10
Kriek, J. (2009) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 10
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Winn, W. D. (1986) · PLET Programmed Learning & Educational Technology · doi:10.1080/0033039860230405 · Cited by 10
Learning online: Understanding academic success from a self -regulated learning perspective
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Jarutkamolpong, S., & Kwangmuang, P. (2025) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101866 · Cited by 10
Disagreement drives metacognitive development
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“(2017) [8] by equation (1): n = σ(2)npq e2(N − 1) + σ2pq (1) Donde: N: Number of population elements; n: Number of elements of the sample; σ: Level of confidence; e: Error allowed; p: Probability that an element is selected”
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Zhang, Q., & Lockee, B. B. (2022) · Journal of Formative Design in Learning · doi:10.1007/s41686-022-00068-y · Cited by 9
“Metacogni-tive knowledge is the learner’s stored world knowledge (Flavell, 1979), knowledge about oneself and cognitive tasks (Ku & Ho, 2010).”
BackgroundA characterization of the neural representation of confidence during probabilistic learning
Bounmy, T., Eger, E., & Meyniel, F. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119849 · Cited by 16
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“The concept of metacognition was proposed by American developmental psychologist Flavell in the 1970s [30].”
BackgroundCareer decision‐making, career exploration behaviors, and self‐regulated learning
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“At its core, metacognition refers to the ability to think about one’s own thinking and respond accordingly [40].”
BackgroundHorváth, D., Kovács-Tóth, B., Oláh, B., & Fekete, Z. (2024) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2024.152489 · Cited by 9
Bampa, G., Μoraitou, D., Metallidou, P., Masoura, E. V., Παπαντωνίου, Γ., Sofologi, M., Kougioumtzis, G. Α., Papatzikis, E., & Tsolaki, M. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12101019 · Cited by 10
“This trend is driven by the critical role metacognition plays in controlling and regulating cognitive processes [14].”
BackgroundAmbient smart environments: affordances, allostasis, and wellbeing
White, B., & Miller, M. (2024) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-024-04679-9 · Cited by 9
“Metacognition refers loosely to an agent’s abilities to think about thinking (Flavell, 1979 ; Proust, 2013 ; Sandved-Smith et al., 2020 ; Fleur et al., 2021).”
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“This reflection involves, on one hand, possessing knowledge about one’s own cognition, and, on the other hand, being able to regulate cognition (Flavell, 1979 ; Ford & Yore, 2012 ; Grotzer & Mittle - fehldt, 2012 ; Pozo, 2016 ; Rosa & Darroz, 2022 ; Schraw & Gutierrez, 2015 ; Willison et al., 2023…”
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“Metacognitive resources are often viewed as executive processes in that they control other processes (Flavell, 1979).”
Metacognitive function in young adults is impacted by physical activity, diet, and sleep patterns
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Trust issues: Adolescents' epistemic vigilance towards online sources
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“It is thus possible that children's difficulty with semantic errors reflects a difficulty with metacognition, particularly knowledge they have about themselves as a person and the task (i.e., metacognitive knowledge; Flavell, 1979).”
Zhai, C., & Öztürk, İ. (2025) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.70041 · Cited by 9
Ruhl, J., Perels, F., & Dörrenbächer-Ulrich, L. (2025) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102760 · Cited by 14
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“As first proposed by Flavell (1979), metacognition is a form of cognitive modeling that involves higher mental processing, described as “ thinking about thinking .”
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Promoting Practice-Based Innovation Through Learning at Work
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Echeverri, Á. (2009) · TTR traduction terminologie rédaction · doi:10.7202/029687ar · Cited by 9
“En 1979, Flavell définissait la métacognition comme « […] knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena » (Flavell, 1979, p. 906), la connaissance que l’être humain a de l’activité cognitive.”
Students’ Metacomprehension Knowledge: Components that Predict Comprehension Performance
Zabrucky, K. M., Moore, D. D., Agler, L. L., & Cummings, A. M. (2015) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2014.950536 · Cited by 9
“In an early article on the topic, Flavell (1979) discussed metacognition as Address correspondence to K. M. Zabrucky, Department of Educational Psychology, Special Education and Communication Disorders, Georgia State University, P.O. Box 3979, Atlanta, GA 30302-3979.”
BackgroundFunctional Neuroimaging Studies of Emotional Self-Regulation and Spiritual Experiences
Beauregard, M. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0647-1_7 · Cited by 7
Metacognitive changes and sources of confidence judgements in health professions classroom learning
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Fernández, M., García-Ravidá, L. B., & Mumbardó‐Adam, C. (2019) · Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology · doi:10.25115/ejrep.v17i49.2421 · Cited by 11
“In the last four decades, several educational researchers have focused on the way stu- dents learn, taking into account cognition, metacognition, motivation, different approaches to learning, regulation strategies, etc. (Flavell, 1979; Marton & Säljö, 1976; Pintrich et al., 1988; Zimmerman, 1998).”
BackgroundHinojosa, L. M. M., Rodríguez, M. C., & Ortiz-Paez, C. A. (2020) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.9.1.413 · Cited by 10
“According to Flavell (1981, 1985), this metacognitive knowledge comprises three important variables: Personal variables or knowledge of its own cognitive capacities and limitations of learning.”
BackgroundRohmadi, M., Sudaryanto, M., Ulya, C., Akbariski, H. S., & Putri, U. A. (2020) · Brawijaya International Conference on Social and Political Sciences (BSPACE) · doi:10.4108/eai.26-11-2019.2295218 · Cited by 14
“In this case, educators make an effort so that learning is carried out in children's interest [4].”
BackgroundWhy There Is a Vestibular Sense, or How Metacognition Individuates the Senses
Garzorz, I. T., & Deroy, O. D. (2020) · Multisensory Research · doi:10.1163/22134808-bja10026 · Cited by 7
Predictors of Adults’ Metacognitive Monitoring Ability: The Roles of Task and Item Characteristics
Follmer, D. J., & Clariana, R. B. (2020) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2020.1783193 · Cited by 10
“Metacognition is typically divided conceptually into two primary components: knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Schraw & Dennison, 1994; Schraw & Moshman, 1995).”
BackgroundCook‐Sather, A., & Hayward, L. M. (2020) · College Teaching · doi:10.1080/87567555.2020.1793715 · Cited by 11
The role of metacognition in mindfulness interventions with Japanese EFL university students
Stringer, T., & Looney, K. (2020) · Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/23735082.2020.1818806 · Cited by 10
“In education, metacognition refers to two areas (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundRivers, D. J., Vallance, M., & Nakamura, M. (2021) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/0047239521999779 · Cited by 9
“Awareness of the self has frequently been re fl ected through the term metacognitive knowledge, which is one of the three components of metacognition alongside metacognitive regulation and metacognitive experience (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundWaliłko, J., Bronowicka, P., He, J., & Brytek‐Matera, A. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13072475 · Cited by 13
“It could be possible that beliefs about rumination act as an internal control mechanism that strengthens ruminative thinking [46], which may be one factor accounting for its persistence in normal-weight women.”
BackgroundRaphael, T. E., Au, K. H., & Goldman, S. R. (2009) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203875186-23 · Cited by 9
Barritt, L., Thompson, S. J., & Woodward, M. (2021) · International Journal of Art & Design Education · doi:10.1111/jade.12391 · Cited by 11
Effect of CALLA metacognitive strategy instruction on reading comprehension and reading awareness
Pontianak, U. T., Tawarik, O., Ikhsanudin, I., et al. (2021) · Journal of Applied Studies in Language · doi:10.31940/jasl.v5i2.309-319 · Cited by 9
Empowering Metacognition Through Dance Writing and Collaborative Dance Making
Buck-Pavlick, H. (2022) · Journal of Dance Education · doi:10.1080/15290824.2022.2051041 · Cited by 9
“The goal of the project was to empower student metacognition and cognitive monitoring (Flavell 1979) within a middle school dance class through dance writing and collaborative dance making.”
BackgroundStudents’ cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies towards hands-on science
Discipulo, L. G., & Bautista, R. G. (2022) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v11i2.22018 · Cited by 24
Martinez, S., Brandt, L., Comer, S. D., LEVIN, F. R., & Jones, J. D. (2022) · Addiction Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100034 · Cited by 11
“Metacognition is commonly defined as the self-awareness, knowledge, and cognitive processes involved in decision-making, appraisal, control, or monitoring of thinking (“thinking about thinking ”) [75, 76].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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