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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
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Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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“De façon générale, le processus d’apprentissage autorégulé de l’élève est médiatisé par ses connaissances (Flavell, 1979 ; Pressley et Afflerbach, 1995 ; Van Dijk et Kintsch, 1983), par sa motivation (Bandura, 1993 ; Pintrich et Schrauben, 1992 ; Schiefele, 1991 ; Viau, 1994) et par les émotions…”
BackgroundInvestigating Pre-service Elementary School Teachers’ Metacognitive Science Learning Orientations
Gökalp, M. S., & Kırbulut, Z. D. (2013) · The Anthropologist · doi:10.1080/09720073.2013.11891346 · Cited by 8
“However, researchers commonly elaborated on three components of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge/awareness, metacognitive monitoring and evaluation, and metacognitive regulation (for example Flavell 1979; Pintrich et al. 2000; Schraw 2001; Schraw and Moshman 1995).”
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“, knowledge about themselves as learners and the factors that affect their cognition (23).”
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“He introduced three areas of metacognition (Flavell, 1979): (a) metacognitive knowledge, (b) metacognitive experiences, and (c) metacognitive strategies.”
BackgroundThe Development of a Diagnostic Framework of Problem Solving and Stress
Ostell, A. (1988) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515078808254201 · Cited by 8
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The Influence of Metacognitive Instruction of Reading and Writing Strategies on Positive Transfer
Kaniel, S., Licht, P., & Peled, B. (2000) · Gifted Education International · doi:10.1177/026142940001500106 · Cited by 8
Metacognition, Pupil Empowerment and the School Context
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Tuning, Tying, and Training Texts
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Differentiation of the Curriculum for the Highly Able
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Use of constructivism in the development and evaluation of an educational game environment.
Seagram, R. (2004) · ResearchSpace (University of KwaZulu-Natal) · Cited by 8
Investigation and Analysis of Online Reading Strategies
Kymes, A. (2007) · SHAREOK (University of Oklahoma; Oklahoma State University; Central Oklahoma University) · Cited by 8
Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood: Implications for Development
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Reflective writing analytics and transepistemic abduction
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A generalized definition of critical thinkingPreprint
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Critical Thinking and Flexibility
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Tseng, C.-M. (2014) · doi:10.17077/etd.gn2rlgs5 · Cited by 8
“Flavell (1979) believed that critical thinking plays an essential role in metacognition in the sense that wise and thoughtful life decisions follow from “critical appraisal of message source, quality of appeal, and probable consequences needed to cope with these inputs sensibly” (p. 910).”
BackgroundJudgments of learning distinguish humans from large language models in predicting memory
Huff, M., & Ulakci, E. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-22290-x · Cited by 9
Online time series prediction with meta-cognition
George, K., & Mutalik, P. (2016) · doi:10.1109/ijcnn.2016.7727462 · Cited by 7
Use of SPICE Circuit Simulation to Guide Written Reflections and Metacognition
Dickerson, S. J., & Clark, R. M. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Education · doi:10.1109/te.2021.3130033 · Cited by 7
Factors Influencing Problem-Solving Competence of Nursing Students: A Cross-Sectional Study
Choi, E.-H., & Jeon, J. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10071184 · Cited by 7
“Metacognition is the ability to think about one ’ s own thinking [6], as expressed by the individual knowing and controlling their thought processes and applying previously acquired knowledge, skills, and experiences using appropriate strategies [7].”
Poll, G. H., & Petru, J. (2022) · Communication Disorders Quarterly · doi:10.1177/15257401221120368 · Cited by 7
“Conceptions of metacognition suggest that successes and failures during metacognitive experiences refine metacognition for future experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluentialTeaching Postsecondary Students to Use Analogies as a Cognitive Learning Strategy: An Intervention
Tise, J. C., Sperling, R. A., Dann, M. S., & Young, T. M. (2023) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.22-05-0084 · Cited by 8
“Metacognitive monitoring ought to monitor the analogy-creation process, and this monitoring should result in metacognitive experiences (Flavell, 1979) of either successful mapping (and thus a positive evaluation of one’s knowledge) or unsuccessful mapping (and thus a negative evaluation of one’s knowledge).”
BackgroundMetacognitive sensitivity and symptoms of mental disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Hohendorf, M., & Bauer, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.991339 · Cited by 15
“Paulewicz et al. (2020) raise this concern in the context of a causal analysis framework, taking into account that metacognition may involve the monitoring or regulation of multiple interacting stages which constitute first-order processing for a given task (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundMoustakas, D., & Gonida, E. Ν. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13100970 · Cited by 12
Zhang, W., & Lian, R. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104247 · Cited by 20
Lim, A. S., Krishnan, S., Tan, G., Stewart, D. C., & Al‐Diery, T. (2024) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2024.04.013 · Cited by 8
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Exploring metacognitive processes in design ideation with text-to-image AI tools
Chang, H., & Kuo, J.-Y. (2024) · Proceedings of the Design Society · doi:10.1017/pds.2024.94 · Cited by 9
Ning, Y., Li, C., Si, S., Xu, S., Zhang, Q., & Cui, L. (2024) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-024-09652-y · Cited by 9
“The higher (meta) level cognition monitors and controls cognitive processing on the lower (object) level (Flavell, 1979; Nelson & Narens, 1994).”
Tsouvala, A., Katsouri, I.-G., Μoraitou, D., Παπαντωνίου, Γ., Sofologi, M., Nikova, A. S., Vlotinou, P., Tsiakiri, A., & Tsolaki, M. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14060483 · Cited by 7
“Metacognition, or the knowledge of one’s cognitive system, facilitates awareness acquisition [22].”
BackgroundGidalevich, S., & Mirkin, E. (2024) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe14070133 · Cited by 17
“Metacognition is a form of cognition, a second or higher-order thinking process for understanding the task and the solution strategy [22–25].”
BackgroundWang, W., Mi, W., Meng, X., et al. (2024) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2024.106356 · Cited by 7
Yazıcı, G., & Doğan, F. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101651 · Cited by 10
Wei, Y., Soderstrom, N. C., Meade, M. L., & Scott, B. G. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14111104 · Cited by 9
“Metacognition refers to people’s understanding of their own cognitive processes, as well as one’s knowledge and understanding of how learning and memory operate [13,14].”
The structure of adult thinking: A network approach to (meta)cognitive processing
Orona, G. A., Eccles, J. S., Solanki, S. M., Copp, D. A., Dang, Q.-V., & Arum, R. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102584 · Cited by 7
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“Metacognition, specifically, is concerned with the cognitive processes involved in regulating the strategies used in a task, as well as monitoring these strategies and assessing task performance against set goals (Flavell, 1979).”
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“Prior research shows that through metacognitive reflections, learners can critically challenge their own thinking (Prins et al. 2006), while mastering future innovations due to the ability to learn new skills (Flavell 1979; Dunlosky and Metcalfe 2009).”
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“At its origin, metacognition was mostly conceived as declarative only and related to language skills and metamemory (Flavell, 1979), but it is now considered to also include a procedural or non-conceptual facet that is independent from the declarative facet and from language acquisition (Beran,…”
Chen, J., & Zhu, Q. (2025) · Journal of English for Academic Purposes · doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2025.101515 · Cited by 7
Xie, Y., Li, Y. W., Yu, T., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13584-8 · Cited by 7
“Meta-cognition refers to the knowledge and cognitive processes involved in evaluating, monitoring, and regulating cognition (Flavell, 1979).”
Adaptive metacognitive prompting in young learners and the role of prior performance
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“Similarly, individuals with strong task knowledge benefit from metacognition by applying their understanding of AI ’ s functions more effectively, enhancing the impact of their knowledge on usage (Flavell, 1979).”
Kitsantas, A., Bembenutty, H., Cleary, T. J., Alexander, P. A., DiBenedetto, M. K., Kaplan, A., Kolovelonis, A., Mandell, B. E., Martin, A. J., McCrudden, M. T., et al. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-10052-0 · Cited by 31
“For her sabbatical, she went to Stanford to learn all she could from John Flavell (1979), the father of metacognition, which eventually led to her book Metacognition and Reading Comprehension (Garner, 1987).”
Fahrni, D. D. D., Hascher, T., & Prasse, D. (2025) · Learning in Context · doi:10.1016/j.lecon.2025.100007 · Cited by 16
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“The course design was theoretically underpinned by the concept of metacognitive genre awareness (Negretti 2012; 2017; Negretti, & Kuteeva 2011; Negretti & McGrath 2018; Yeh 2014) which combines the theories of ESP school genre analysis (Swales 1990; 2004) and metacognition (Flavell 1979).”
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“Definition of metacognition The term metacognition was first broadly defined by Flavell (1979) as ‘cognition about cognition’.”
BackgroundÖztel, T., & Balcı, F. (2022) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218221145314 · Cited by 9
“Metacognition refers to “cognition about cognition”/“higher order cognition” (Flavell, 1979), which is considered to be a part of consciousness (Fleming, Dolan, & Frith, 2012; Lau & Rosenthal, 2011; Lau, 2019).”
BackgroundBertrand, E., Marinho, V., Naylor, R., et al. (2022) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2022.2155283 · Cited by 7
“Metacognition is defined as the knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979), and unawareness in PwD can affect particularly changes in cognition (Bertrand et al., 2016; Ernst et al., 2015).”
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Metacognitive awareness in the sound-induced flash illusion
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“…knowledge, we felt the need to de fi ne this dimension more comprehensively in this study than in the original RBT, using other sources that describe typical features of metacognition (Anderson et al., 2001; Cambridge Assessment International Education, 2019; Flavell, 1979; Lokají č ková, 2014).”
Poszytek, P., Hyrcza-Michalska, M., Brodny, J., Wawrzała, P., Gębal, P. E., Lisok, J., KRUSZEWSKA, J., Sigurðardóttir, A. G., Bugnova, M., & Dobrowolska, M. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151612267 · Cited by 7
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Metacomprensión y Desarrollo Cognitivo en la Autorregulación del Aprendizaje del Adolescente
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Assessing metacognitive knowledge in subjective decisions: The knowledge of weights paradigm
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“Developing and maintaining this explicit knowledge requires a decision maker to actively monitor their beliefs, values, and decision-making processes, and thus can be considered a metacognitive task (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Flavell, 1979; McCormick, 2003).”
InfluentialLearning Outputs for Peer Teachers in Undergraduate Medical Education
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“Such metacognitive skills, recognized as the ability to plan, monitor, evaluate, and regulate one’s own learning processes [22], are important not only for learning efficiently through medical school, but also for the ability to continue developing key competencies in problem-solving, critical…”
Chen, J., Wu, L., Zhang, Y., & Wang, M. (2025) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101862 · Cited by 8
Learners' Level of Metacognitive Awareness and Its Relationship with Listening Performance
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“Metacognition refers to knowledge about and regulation of one’s cognitive activities in learning processes, which plays an important role in facilitating one’s thinking and learning [3].”
BackgroundMeta-cognitive therapy versus cognitive therapy in reducing meta-worry in students with test anxiety
Ghahvehchi-Hosseini, F. (2013) · International behavioral sciences/International journal of behavioral sciences · Cited by 7
Janusik, L. A., & Keaton, S. A. (2015) · Journal of Intercultural Communication Research · doi:10.1080/17475759.2015.1073169 · Cited by 8
“Metacognition was initially defined as, “any conscious cognitive or affective experiences that accompany and pertain to an intellectual enterprise” (Flavell, 1979, p. 906), which included both experience and knowledge.”
BackgroundTreatment effects for adolescent struggling readers: An application of moderated mediation
Roberts, G. J., Fletcher, J. M., Stuebing, K. K., et al. (2012) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.09.008 · Cited by 7
“At this stage of development, children become increasingly capable of metacognitive reflection (Flavell, 1979), better able to recognize incomplete information and identify gaps and inconsistencies in their comprehension (Markman, 1977), and better equipped, cognitively, to resolve discrepancies in…”
100% PBL curriculum: Startup phase complete
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Metacognitive Reading Strategy Training of Advanced Level EFL Learners in Turkey
Razõ, S., & Onsekiz, Ç. (2014) · Cited by 7
van Velzen, J. H. (2015) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-015-9689-3 · Cited by 8
Exploring the Global in Student Assessment and Feedback for Sustainable Tourism Education
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Cognitive Education in the Digital Age: Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice
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“…being a conscious, task-oriented process in which learners take an active part in the organization and control of their thinking, that is, knowing what (metacognitive knowledge ) and knowing how which involves planning, monitoring, and evaluation of cognitive processes (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979).”
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“The cognitive process which helps an individual understand their strengths, weaknesses, and competence is known as metacognition (Flavell, 1979).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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