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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
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Developmental changes in memorization processes
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Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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“Such a discussion provided evidence that Amy could reflect on strategies associated with thinking and learning to some degree, providing evidence of metacognitive knowledge of strategies (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialAn Analysis on Reading Strategies based on Metacognitive Awareness and Gender
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“Key components of self-awareness include metacognition or the ability to be aware of one ’ s own cognitive process and how those processes can guide learning and decision-making (Flavell, 1979).”
Metacognition in a Foreign Language Reading Context
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“[35] J. H. Flavell 1979 Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry,” Am.”
BackgroundFIRAT, T., & Ergül, C. (2020) · Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.24106/kefdergi.4025 · Cited by 7
Papamitsiou, Z. K., & Economides, A. A. (2020) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12472 · Cited by 7
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Metacognition in canids: A comparison of dogs (Canis familiaris) and dingoes (Canis dingo).
Royka, A. L., Johnston, A. M., & Santos, L. R. (2020) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/com0000246 · Cited by 7
“Keywords: metacognition, information-seeking, domestication, Canis familiaris Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/com0000246.supp The capacity to think about one’s own mental states—known as metacognition (Flavell, 1979)—informs much of human experience.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe relationship between metamotivational knowledge and performance
Ross, J., Nguyen, T., Fujita, K., Miele, D. B., Edwards, M. C., & Scholer, A. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1124171 · Cited by 7
“Building on insights from the metacognition (Flavell, 1979; Nelson and Narens, 1990) and educational psychology literatures on motivation regulation (Schunk and Zimmerman, 1994; Wolters et al.”
BackgroundHashmi, A., Khalid, M., & Shoaib, A. (2019) · Cited by 7
Single-Neuron Correlates of Decision Confidence in the Human Medial Temporal Lobe
Unruh-Pinheiro, A., Hill, M. R., Weber, B., Boström, J. P., Elger, C. E., & Mormann, F. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.09.021 · Cited by 8
Pauen, M., & Haynes, J. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103106 · Cited by 9
“Metacognition studies comprise another domain of research in which introspective reports are utilized in order to collect evidence about the mind (Flavell 1979, Fleming and Dolan 2012).”
Settanni, M., Magistro, D., & Rabaglietti, E. (2012) · ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) · Cited by 7
Royalty, A., Chen, H. L., Roth, B., & Sheppard, S. (2021) · Understanding innovation · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62037-0_4 · Cited by 7
Nguyen, C. H., & Phung, V. T. (2021) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.10.3.1561 · Cited by 10
“These knowledge and beliefs are formed by and exercised around the three major categories (person, task, and strategy) that interact with and affect the outcomes of cognitive acts (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTeachers’ Autonomy Support in Synchronous Online Learning Environments
Okada, R. (2021) · Information and Technology in Education and Learning · doi:10.12937/itel.1.1.reg.p004 · Cited by 7
“Metacognition is defined as one’s awareness of one's own cognition, or a critical awareness of one’s own thoughts [20] .”
BackgroundAguilar, A. C., & Ayure, C. P. Á. (2021) · PROFILE Issues in Teachers Professional Development · doi:10.15446/profile.v23n2.88928 · Cited by 12
“Metacognition is represented in what a student knows about themselves as a learner and has been conceptualised as a blend of knowledge and regulation (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundTUNAGÜR, M., & Turan, L. (2021) · Van Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi dergisi/Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi dergisi · doi:10.33711/yyuefd.979132 · Cited by 8
Utami, D. D., Setyosarı, P., Kamdi, W., Ulfa, S. U., & Kuswandi, D. (2020) · PERIÓDICO TCHÊ QUÍMICA · doi:10.52571/ptq.v17.n35.2020.79_utami_pgs_960_976.pdf · Cited by 7
Lockhart, K. L., Goddu, M. K., & Keil, F. C. (2021) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101115 · Cited by 6
Strengthening the STEM Pipeline for Women: An Interdisciplinary Model for Improving Math Identity
Akin, V., Santillan, S. T., & Valentino, L. (2022) · PRIMUS · doi:10.1080/10511970.2022.2032506 · Cited by 11
“(1) Metacognition , the practice of thinking about one’s thinking, empowers students to identify as independent and resourceful problem-solvers [33,50].”
BackgroundCan metacognition bring in the ingredients requisite for L2 listening success?
Mart, Ç. T. (2021) · AILA Review · doi:10.1075/aila.21010.mar · Cited by 7
Renkl, A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61403-7_1 · Cited by 9
López-Moríñigo, J.-D., Escobedo-Aedo, P. J., Martínez, A. S.-E., Ruiz-Ruano, V. G., Sánchez-Alonso, S., Mata-Iturralde, L., Muñoz-Lorenzo, L., Baca‐García, E., & David, A. S. (2022) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000521915 · Cited by 7
Beyond counting the correct responses: Metacognitive monitoring and score estimations in mathematics
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Nailed it! Doctor of pharmacy learners' self-awareness of performance on authentic assessments
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Orsini-Jones, M. E., Cerveró-Carrascosa, A., & Finardi, K. R. (2022) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-8921-2.ch016 · Cited by 7
Zhao, Q., Ji-wei, H., Lin, W., Zhang, S., & Li, Y. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14106311 · Cited by 9
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Kajka, N., & Kulik, A. (2022) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547221121289 · Cited by 9
“Flavell (1979), the precursor of metacognition, noticed that the knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes allows for selecting an effective strategy of action and modification of one’s own behavior.”
BackgroundInfluentialPrice, A., Beckey, A., & Collins, D. J. (2022) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2022.2125946 · Cited by 7
Pratt, S. M., & Hodges, T. S. (2022) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2022.2126572 · Cited by 7
“Flavell (1979) first defined metacognition as purposeful thinking about one’s thinking.”
BackgroundBisagno, E., Cadamuro, A., & Morra, S. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105568 · Cited by 8
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Perceived listening ability and hearing loss: Systematic review and qualitative meta-synthesis
Hughes, S., Boisvert, I., McMahon, C. M., Steyn, A., & Neal, K. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276265 · Cited by 9
“Task knowledge enables individuals to appraise the difficulty of a listening activity to support strategy selection and deployment [12,16,17].”
Backgroundjuicios metacognitivos como tendencia emergente de investigación.
Torres, A. J. O., Ferreras, A. P., Londoño, D. M. M., & Gutierrez, A. P. (2023) · Ánfora · doi:10.30854/anf.v30.n54.2023.910 · Cited by 8
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“However, meta-skills, which is about ‘learning to learn’, and metacognition are not the same; metacognition is the ‘cognition of cognition’ (Flavell, 1979) encompassing knowledge, experiences and skills of monitoring one’s own inquiry (Efklides, 2006).”
BackgroundThe role of metacognitive beliefs versus meta-emotion beliefs in disordered eating
Strodl, E. S., & Sorensen, P. (2023) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2023.2181685 · Cited by 10
Expertise determines frequency and accuracy of contributions in sequential collaboration
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“Metacognition describes contributors’ ‘cognition about cognitive phenomena’ (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundLay Definitions of Intelligence, Knowledge, and Memory: Inter- and Independence of Constructs
Coane, J. H., Cipollini, J., Barrett, T. E., Kavaler, J., & Umanath, S. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11050084 · Cited by 7
“These beliefs likely guide behavior, much like other metacognitive judgments such as those discussed above (Flavell 1979; Hacker et al. 2000; Nederhand et al. 2020).”
BackgroundAssessment of Frontal Hemispherical Lateralization in Plaque Psoriasis and Atopic Dermatitis
Bozsányi, S., Czurkó, N., Becske, M., Kasek, R., Lázár, B. K., Boostani, M., Meznerics, F. A., Farkas, K., Varga, N. N., Gulyás, L., et al. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12134194 · Cited by 8
“In addition, a metacognition test was performed [52] to assess self-awareness, self-reflection, and other autognostic features of the human mind.”
MethodEffects of Introducing a Learning Robot on the Metacognitive Knowledge of Students Aged 8–11
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“For example [16] subdivided metacognition into two main aspects: metacognitive knowledge, which involves awareness, and metacognitive monitoring and self-regulation, often referred to as metacognitive skills.”
BackgroundInfluentialMetacognition for hearing in noise: a comparison between younger and older adults
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“Awareness of our own cognitive processes falls under the broad domain of metacognition, that is, a high-level cognitive function that allows us to think about our own thinking (Efklides, 2008; Flavell, 1979).”
Implementation of Project-Based Learning Model to Improve Students' Critical Thinking Skills
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IMPACT OF METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES ON STUDENT LEARNING
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The accuracy of self-efficacy beliefs in outdoor education
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Assessing students’ reflective responses to chemistry-related learning tasks
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La práctica educativa del maestro mediador
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Self-Monitoring in Children: Accuracy and Reactivity
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American and Chinese Students’ Calibration of Comprehension and Performance
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“There are two distinct aspects of metacognition; knowledge about cognition or the general information one has concerning cognitive processes and strategy use, and regulation of cognition or how one monitors his or her cognitive processes and engages in self-regulation by employing strategies to solve problems (Brown 1…”
BackgroundCognitive factors correlating with the metacognition of the phenomenal properties of experience
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Relationship of metacognitive monitoring with interaction in an asynchronous online discussion forum
Topçu, A. (2010) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/01449291003692649 · Cited by 9
“Metacognition is defined as the ability to monitor learning, evaluate the process and make adjustments in the way one learns (Flavell 1979).”
BackgroundThe Couple's Grid: A Tool for Assessing Interpersonal Construction in Couples
Salla, M., Feixas, G., Ballén, C., Muñoz, D., & Compañ, V. (2014) · Journal of Constructivist Psychology · doi:10.1080/10720537.2013.859110 · Cited by 7
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A Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention Program for Students with Special Reading Disabilities
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Improvement Of Confidence And Motivation Using Online Metacognition Tool
Mazumder, Q. H., & Finney, M. J. (2012) · American Journal of Engineering Education (AJEE) · doi:10.19030/ajee.v3i1.6889 · Cited by 7
“The difference between cognitive and metacognitive knowledge (Flavell 1979) is that the metacognitive approach focuses on how the knowledge is used by students.”
BackgroundLatifi, M., Tavakoli, M., & Dabaghi, A. (2014) · International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning · doi:10.5861/ijrsll.2014.679 · Cited by 7
“As Goh and Taib (2006) put it, less proficient listeners lack the capability of transferring the natural approaches of their first language listening to their second language listening context; therefore, they can benefit more from such metacognitive approaches in which they learn how to control their understanding of…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLeadership Development Using Three Modes of Educational Delivery: Online, Blended and Face to Face
Ladyshewsky, R. K., & Taplin, R. (2014) · eSpace (Curtin University) · Cited by 7
Paramedic Clinical Decision Making
Jensen, J. L. (2009) · DalSpace (Dalhousie University) · Cited by 8
Castellaro, M., & Roselli, N. D. (2012) · Psicoperspectivas Individuo y Sociedad · doi:10.5027/psicoperspectivas-vol11-issue1-fulltext-173 · Cited by 7
“Según Whitebread et al. (2009), esta perspectiva se basó en el modelo del procesamiento de la información, representado por los trabajos tempranos de Flavell (1979) y Brown (1987), de los cuales deriva el concepto clásico de metacognición.”
BackgroundEffect of Meta-cognitive Strategy Training on Chinese EFL Learners’ Reading Competence
Wang, L. (2015) · International Journal of English Linguistics · doi:10.5539/ijel.v5n1p159 · Cited by 7
“Meta-cognition is generally described as cognition about one’s own cognitive process (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundAuthenticity matters more than intelligence and personality in predicting metacognition
Chiaburu, D. S., Cho, I., & Gardner, R. G. (2015) · Industrial and Commercial Training · doi:10.1108/ict-05-2015-0037 · Cited by 7
“Described as “thinking about your thinking” (Flavell, 1979), or “knowing about knowing,” (Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994), metacognition consists of strategies individuals use to plan, monitor, and regulate their cognition (Pintrich, 1999).”
BackgroundConsidering some Big Issues and the Role of Technology Education in Transformational Change
McLaren, S. (2012) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6209-161-0_10 · Cited by 7
Meta-Cognitive Strategies and Nursing Students’ Achievement
Salari, M., tarmizi, R., Hamzah, R., & Hambali, Z. (2013) · Journal of Education and Vocational Research · doi:10.22610/jevr.v4i6.116 · Cited by 9
Kırbulut, Z. D. (2014) · The International Journal of Environmental and Science Education · Cited by 7
Swartz, R. J., & McGuinness, C. (2014) · Cited by 7
Karslı, T. A. (2015) · Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.17755/esosder.40353 · Cited by 7
“Buna göre her ikisi de kazanılabilir, unutulabilir, doğru ve yanlış olabilir (Flavell 1979; Flavell, 1987).”
BackgroundBiological Agency: Its Subjective Foundations and a Large-Scale Taxonomy
Brizio, A., & Tirassa, M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00041 · Cited by 7
“This term was first introduced by Flavell (1979), who defined it as the ability to think about thinking, and has since been used mostly in the area of human social cognition and communication (e.g., Tirassa and Bosco, 2008).”
BackgroundAlidoust, A. R., & Homaei, M. B. (2012) · Cited by 7
van Velzen, J. H. (2016) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1080/09585176.2016.1174140 · Cited by 7
“Metacognition includes an awareness and understanding of cognitive processes (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979; Garofalo & Lester, 1985).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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