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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
Knowing when, where, and how to remember ; A problem of metacognition
Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
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Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
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Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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Pelegrina, S., Bajo, M. T., & Justicia, F. J. (1999) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(99)80011-9 · Cited by 6
Effects of cognitive monitoring strategies on the test anxieties of elementary students
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Kim, Y. H. (2014) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2014.934661 · Cited by 6
“Meta-cognitive knowledge of general problem-solving strategies indicates combinations and interactions between three components: knowledge of possible repertoires of strategies, understanding of attributes and properties of tasks, and awareness and insight regarding one’s self (Flavell, 1979; Kim, 2011; Metallidou, 20…”
BackgroundInfluentialLawanto, O. (2011) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2011.6142765 · Cited by 6
“A student with good metacognitive skills and awareness uses these processes to oversee his or her own learning process, plan and monitor ongoing cognitive activities, and compare cognitive outcomes with internal or external standards [15].”
BackgroundIn search of the reliability of a Flemish version of the Knowledge Monitoring Assessment Test
Clarebout, G., Elen, J., & Onghena, P. (2006) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-006-9582-0 · Cited by 6
Toward an Understanding of Knowledge Reuse in an On-Line Environment
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“According to Flavell [ 6 , 7], meta-cognition consists of both meta-cognitive knowledge and meta-cognitive experiences or regulation.”
BackgroundInfluentialMograbi, D. C., Brown, R. G., Brand, A., & Morris, R. G. (2014) · Temas em Psicologia · doi:10.9788/tp2014.3-04 · Cited by 6
“In particular, metacognitive paradigms were originally developed for the study of healthy participants (e.g. school children; Flavell, 1979), and their use with clinical populations brings a number of methodological challenges which are seldom addressed by researchers.”
Mahasneh, A. M. (2014) · Review of European Studies · doi:10.5539/res.v6n4p201 · Cited by 6
“The most famous of the several models addressing meta-cognitive thinking components is that of Flavell (1979, 1985) who defined two basic components for meta-cognition: -Meta-cognitive knowledge is composed of three main types: (1) knowing the individual’s variables: which include knowing the…”
BackgroundFernández, M., Tubau, E., Agüera, L. G., Rabanaque, S., & Sanchez, E. N. (2008) · Anales de Psicología · Cited by 6
Intentional learning in an intentional world
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“Originariamente la metacognizione è stata definita come la conoscenza e la regolazione dei propri e degli altrui processi cognitivi (Flavell, 1979; Brown, 1978).”
BackgroundYahn, L. M., & Kaufman, J. C. (2016) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6300-506-7_5 · Cited by 6
Learning Disabilities in Mathematics
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Monitoring and the transfer of individual problem solving
Bender, T. A. (1986) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/0361-476x(86)90006-8 · Cited by 6
Print and Television: Children's Use of the Medium Is the Message
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“It is possible to be mindful or mindless when viewing: mindful viewing is the conscious commitment of interpretive resources to the effort aimed at finding the meaning of programs, and it involves metacognitive decisions to stop and think about the message (Flavell 1979).”
BackgroundChildren's understanding of referential messages produced by deaf and hearing speakers
Brownell, M. D., Trehub, S. E., & Gartner, G. M. (1988) · First Language · doi:10.1177/014272378800802405 · Cited by 6
Accuracy of Learning Disabled Students' Self-Prediction of Decoding
Loper, A. B. (1984) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.2307/1510317 · Cited by 6
“Flavell (1979) suggested that unlike cognitive strategies, which are used to make cognitive progress, metacognitive skills serve to monitor cognitive progress.”
BackgroundStudent Self-Assessment in Higher Education
Lew, M. (2009) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 6
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Expertise in Interdisciplinary Science and EDucationPreprint
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An electronic performance support system for the eLearner
Ruelland, D., & Brisebois, A. (2003) · doi:10.1109/cie.2002.1186154 · Cited by 6
“It is organized around the six major conditions influencing eLearning [9]: knowledge to acquire; learning activities to complete; learning time schedule; motivation; network interaction among peers; technological and pedagogical resources.”
BackgroundKiaei, Y. A. (2014) · FIU - Digital Commons (Florida International University) · doi:10.25148/etd.fi14040889 · Cited by 7
“Despite the evolving nature of the field, metacognition is still generally referred to as thinking about thinking, or cognition about cognition and cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979; Lin & Zabrucky, 1998; McCromick, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialdos Santos, K., & de Castro, A. (1992) · Doctoral thesis, Institute of Education, University of London. · Cited by 6
Using digital formative assessments to improve learning in physics education
Molin, F. (2021) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20220114fm · Cited by 5
Metacognition in Older Adulthood
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Cognitive acceleration across the primary-second level transition
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COMPONENT NUMERACY SKILLS AND DECISION MAKING
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“…a practical understanding of numbers and mathematical procedures, and (ii) the skills necessary for effective problem solving and self-regulated learning (e.g., metacognition and thinking about thinking; Flavell, 1979; Garofalo & Lester, 1985; Cornoldi, 1997; see also Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009).”
BackgroundKang, B., Kim, J., Yun, T.-R., Bae, H., & Kim, C.-E. (2025) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2502.15365 · Cited by 6
Alsaiari, O., Baghaei, N., Lodge, J. M., Noroozi, O., Gašević, D., Boden, M., & Khosravi, H. (2026) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2026.100553 · Cited by 5
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Developing self-reflection in students: a case study in chemistry education
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Simulation and video feedback as catalysts linguistic skill development in psychology education
Diamanti, R., & Angelini, M. L. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1597291 · Cited by 5
Dauer, J. M., Kirby, C. K., & Sorensen, A. E. (2025) · Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research · doi:10.1186/s43031-025-00132-0 · Cited by 14
“Metacognition can be defined as knowledge about, monitoring and control of one’s own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
Kim, M., & Hiver, P. V. (2025) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2025.100962 · Cited by 6
Undergraduate Students’ Mathematical Proof Skills: Examining the Impact of Six Cognitive Resources
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Strategies for learning English in higher education: a systematic mapping
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Cornell note-taking strategy instruction for Gen Z: enhancing EFL students’ reading comprehension
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“Simply put, metacognitive awareness—the ability to monitor and control one’s own learning (Flavell, 1979)—has become an essential skill in the AI era.”
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Using Generative AI to Enhance Psychometric Scale Development in Market Research
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“…e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e ss e n s u r e s r e li a b l e a n a l y s i s , s u c h a s E F A a nd C F A r e dund a n cy ( C hu r c h ill J r ., 1979 ; D e V e lli s & T h o r p e , 2016 ; M o r ga d o e t a l., 2018 ) A I a u t o m a t e s d a t a c o ll e c t i o n t h r o u g h a d a p t i…”
Mokhithi, M., Campbell, A., Shock, J. P., & Padayachee, P. (2025) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2025.2564193 · Cited by 8
de Jong, T., Γεωργίου, Μ., Kapıcı, H. Ö., Schwichow, M., & Visser, T. C. (2025) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102785 · Cited by 5
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“…includes both metacognitive knowledge (awareness of self, tasks, and strategies) and metacognitive regulation (planning, monitoring, and evaluating), and these processes constitute the core mechanisms through which learners navigate broader SRL cycles (Flavell 1979; Schraw and Moshman 1995).”
Woods, L. S., Lyons, K., van der Vegt, A. H., Olsen, Q., Huang, W., Khor, J. S., Xu, N., & Sullivan, C. M. (2026) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-026-08969-3 · Cited by 14
“…[38, 54, 58] Not perceived as important [42] Variable impacts of AI on healthcare ( n = 3) Less humanistic [38] Accuracy of AI [41] Privacy [41] AI unable to manage complexity [44] literacy, as highlighted by Flavell’s foundational work on metacognition and its role in effective learning [71].”
Zhu, Z., Yu, J., & Luo, Y. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790697 · Cited by 11
“…about one’s awareness of their abilities and surroundings; metacognitive experience refers to one’s subjective feelings and implicit cues that inform their cognitive process; goals are the objectives that one aims to complete; and actions involve their plans and behaviours to achieve the goal [40].”
Wang, X., Zhang, L. J., & Zhang, Y. (2026) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-026-09481-1 · Cited by 10
“…regulation directs and refines learning through planning, monitoring, and evaluation, encompassing activities such as goal setting, strategy assessment, and the alignment of ideas with language use in L2 writing (Flavell, 1979; L.S. Teng & Zhang, 2016; M.F. Teng, 2020 , 2025a ; Winne, 2011).”
Bourke, N., Trender, W. R., Hampshire, A., Lai, H., Demarchi, C., David, M., Hellyer, P. J., Sharp, D. J., & Friedland, D. (2022) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2022.2034650 · Cited by 5
“Within metacognition itself, an early definition from developmental and educational psychology states that these processes can be divided into three subcomponents of metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation and metacognitive experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundThe Metacognitive and Neurocognitive Signatures of Test Methods in Academic Listening
Zhai, J., & Aryadoust, V. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.930075 · Cited by 11
“In line with Flavell (1979), metacognitive knowledge refers to knowledge of the factors affecting cognitive processes in L2 listening and is subcategorized into three types: person, task, and strategy.”
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From metacognition to academic burnout in university students: The mediating role of mindfulness
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“Metacognition, a term first coined by Flavell (1979), refers to an individual's knowledge and cognition about their own cognitive phenomena.”
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“Metacognition, the reflective examination of cognitive processes (e.g., memory, perception, and judgment), consists primarily of three interconnected components—metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experience, and metacognitive monitoring and control (Flavell, 1979).”
Background“My Brain Said That … ”: A Qualitative Study of Sources of Children’s Creative Ideas
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“Studying children’s creative processes is not as straightforward as studying adults’ because of their still-developing meta-cognition (Flavell, 1979).”
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“(a) Reflection (approximately 1.47% of all responses coded) is a component of metacognition [41].”
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“’ – is a question of metacognition (see Glossary), that is, the knowledge of one ’ s own cognitive processes [1].”
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“More specifically, metacognitive skills refer to the abilities to think, understand, apply and monitor one’s own cognitive learning processes, products, strategies and meaning-making (Flavell, 1979).”
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“By analyzing failure situations from high-level semantic reflection and low-level action correction perspective, humans can efficiently adapt to dynamic environments [8].”
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“Others [7], on the other hand, understands”
Metacognition across the STEM Disciplines
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“This ability is one of the components of metacognition called cognitive monitoring (Flavell, 1976, 1979).”
BackgroundA New Model of Mathematics Curriculum and Instruction System in Thailand
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“…own strengths and weaknesses; (2) knowledge of tasks, including the requirements of a given task and what one needs to succeed in accomplishing a task; and (3) knowledge of strategies, encompassing different ways one could approach a problem (Cunningham et al., 2015; Flavell, 1979; Pintrich, 2002).”
BackgroundKaluge, A. H. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1375/1/012012 · Cited by 5
Irribarra, D. T., Ibaceta, M., & Preiss, D. D. (2019) · Studies in Psychology Estudios de Psicología · doi:10.1080/02109395.2019.1679457 · Cited by 8
Jang, Y., Choi, E. Y., Rhee, M., Yoon, H., Park, N. S., & Chiriboga, D. A. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2020.1720596 · Cited by 5
“Self-rated cognitive status refers to one’s perception and evaluation of his/her cognitive health status (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundÖğretmen Adaylarının Üstbiliş Farkındalıkları
Alkan, S., & Açıkyıldız, G. (2020) · Bayburt Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.35675/befdergi.478133 · Cited by 10
Shades of grey: how and why we make mistakes
Uchevatkin, A. A., Yudin, A. L., Afanas'yeva, N. I., & Yumatova, E. A. (2020) · Medical Visualization · doi:10.24835/1607-0763-2020-3-123-145 · Cited by 5
“Flavell [28] метапознание (метакогнитивный процесс) характеризуется как “мышление о мышлении” [29].”
Listening self-efficacy beliefs, L2 listening proficiency, and listening strategy training
Khosroshahi, H. H., & Merç, A. (2020) · ELT Forum Journal of English Language Teaching · doi:10.15294/elt.v9i2.41855 · Cited by 5
“This finding confirms the statement that teaching cognitive and metacognitive listening strategies explicitly can improve the learners’ listening comprehension performance (Flavell, 1979; Goh & Taib, 2006; Graham & Macaro, 2008; Graham, 2011; Macaro, 2008; Schoenfled, 1987; Schunk & Rice, 1983).”
BackgroundResultGuo, W., & Kim, J. H. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77932-0_14 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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