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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
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8 Pillars X 8 Layers Model of Metacognition: Educational Strategies, Exercises &Trainings
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“The term ‘metacognition’ was introduced by Flavell in 1976 to refer to ‘the individual’s own awareness and consideration of his or her cognitive processes and strategies’ (Flavell, 1979 ).”
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“The myriad possible options are thus narrowed down to several that are relevant to the current case and fit well with the The two other sub-models, which processes’, are available online (Figs S1 and”
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“usually considered as components of metacognition [52].”
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“Originally described by Flavell (1979), metacognition, or knowledge of one's own thinking processes, is a vital component of learning and an important characteristic of SRL. Metacognition is a higher order cognitive process that is generally divided into one's knowledge of cognition and regulation…”
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The Role of Self-regulated Learning in Enhancing Learning Performance
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A Triphasic Metacognitive Formulation of Problem Drinking
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Problematic internet pornography use: The role of craving, desire thinking, and metacognition
Allen, A., Kannis‐Dymand, L., & Katsikitis, M. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.02.001 · Cited by 142
“Metacognition is defined as any cognitive processes that are involved in the appraisal, monitoring or control of cognition (Flavell, 1979), essentially it is thinking about thinking.”
BackgroundStillman, G. A. (2011) · International perspectives on the teaching and learning of mathematical modelling · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0910-2_18 · Cited by 140
Class Attendance in Undergraduate Courses
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Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Programming Education: Theories and Exemplars of Use
Loksa, D., Margulieux, L., Becker, B. A., Craig, M., Denny, P., Pettit, R., & Prather, J. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3487050 · Cited by 140
“Theories of self-regulated learning stem from two foundational theories of cognitive control: Flavell’s theory of metacognition [34] and Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulation [4].”
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Barzilai, S., & Eshet‐Alkalai, Y. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.12.003 · Cited by 153
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Monitoring, metacognition, and executive function
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Knowing What You Know and What You Don't: Further Research on Metacognitive Knowledge Monitoring
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An experience sampling study of worry and rumination in psychosis
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“This was based on the understanding that meta-cognitions are stable belief structures (Flavell, 1979) that may vary over time but may not produce sufficient variability over the time course of the study to provide usable data, and thus are more appropriately assessed using traditional measures.”
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“Its focus on developing metacognition [i.e. thinking about thinking (Flavell, 1979)] is underpinned by a model that suggests that the transfer of cognitive skills to daily activities depends on metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation, or the ability to effectively understand and manage…”
BackgroundMavilidi, M. F., Ruiter, M., Schmidt, M., Okely, A. D., Loyens, S. M. M., Chandler, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02079 · Cited by 177
“For example, instead of just thoughtlessly initiating learning, students plan what and how they will learn beforehand, continuously monitoring their learning processes (e.g., metacognition; Flavell, 1979; Zimmerman, 2002).”
BackgroundSelf-regulation: Brain, cognition, and development.
Berger, A. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12327-000 · Cited by 150
Intuition, incubation, and insight: implicit cognition in problem solving
Dorfman, J., Shames, V. A., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1995) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198523109.003.0007 · Cited by 144
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“Through this action research project, students develop meta-cognitive awareness (Azevedo, 2009; Flavell, 1979; Pintrich, 2002; Underwood, 1997); they experience a shift from simply engaging in learning to consciously analysing what constitutes and enhances that learning.”
BackgroundBasic inferences of scientific reasoning, argumentation, and discovery
Lawson, A. E. (2009) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20357 · Cited by 137
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“Metacognitive knowledge is the segment of an individual’s “stored world knowledge that has to do with people as cognitive creatures and with their diverse cognitive tasks, goals, actions, and experiences” (Flavell, 1979, p. 906).”
BackgroundInfluentialStillman, G. A., & Galbraith, P. (1998) · Educational Studies in Mathematics · doi:10.1023/a:1003246329257 · Cited by 137
The assessment of unwanted intrusive thoughts: A review and critique of the literature
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Memory strategy instruction is made of this: Metamemory and durable strategy use
Pressley, M. G., Borkowski, J. G., & O’Sullivan, J. T. (1984) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461528409529285 · Cited by 134
Children with Mathematics Learning Disabilities in Belgium
Desoete, A., Roeyers, H., & Clercq, A. D. (2004) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194040370010601 · Cited by 136
“Metacognitive knowledge has been described as knowledge and deeper understanding of one’s own cognitive skills and products (Flavell, 1976, 1979).”
BackgroundThe role of parenting in children's self-regulated learning
Pino‐Pasternak, D., & Whitebread, D. (2010) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2010.07.001 · Cited by 163
Scaffolding genre knowledge and metacognition: Insights from an L2 doctoral research writing course
Negretti, R., & McGrath, L. (2018) · Journal of Second Language Writing · doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2017.12.002 · Cited by 151
“…a) our knowledge of concepts, ourselves, the task at hand and strategies we are using (metacognitive knowledge); b) planning and setting goals, monitoring, and evaluating our performance and learning (metacognitive regulation) (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979; Pintrich 2002; Schraw & Dennison, 1994).”
2. Developing adaptability: A theory for the design of integrated-embedded training systems
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Animal metacognition: A tale of two comparative psychologies.
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“…research literature is that humans have a cognitive executive that oversees and guides—and thereby optimizes—cognition (Benjamin, Bjork, & Schwartz, 1998; Dunlosky & Bjork, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Koriat, 1993; Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994; Nelson, 1992; Schwartz, 1994; Serra & Dunlosky, 2005).”
The Menace Within: Obsessions and the Self
Aardema, F., & O’Connor, K. P. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/088983907781494573 · Cited by 135
“For example, confessing sexual misconduct had long been an important part of religious confession, but whereas confession was previously focused on sexual deeds alone, the range of confession became much wider with the inclusion of desires and fantasies (Foucault, 1980). Not surprisingly, unwanted mental states came t…”
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Dissociation and its disorders: competing models, future directions, and a way forward
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“Moreover, this is precisely what metacognition is—being aware of and being able to think about one’s thinking (Flavell, 1979; Sperber, 1994; Sternberg, 1985).”
BackgroundMetacognition, Self-Reflection and Recovery In Schizophrenia
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The Consciousness-Intelligence-Knowledge Pyramid: An 8x8 Layer Model
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“Metacognition is the ability of individuals to know their cognitive functions, monitor them while they operate, to control and adjust them, in order to optimize the adjustment to equivalent needs and requirements presented during the whole learning process [38, 39].”
BackgroundProfessional development and reform in science education: The role of teachers' practical knowledge
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Adult Learning in the Digital Age
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Becoming a Thinking Thinker: Metacognition, Self-Reflection, and Classroom Practice
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Raising the Achievement of Young-beginner Readers of French through Strategy Instruction
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“Metacognition, as a regulatory function in cognitive processing, has been identified in the field of psychology in general (Flavell 1979) and in the field of language learning in particular (Wenden 1999).”
BackgroundRelationships between Metacognition, Self-efficacy and Self-regulation in Learning
Cera, R., Mancini, M., & Antonietti, A. (2013) · Journal of Educational Cultural and Psychological Studies (ECPS Journal) · doi:10.7358/ecps-2013-007-cera · Cited by 145
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Strategy Use by Good and Poor Comprehenders Reading Expository Text of Differing Levels
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Causal attributions of hyperactive children: Implications for teaching strategies and self-control.
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Toward a Dynamic, Multidimensional Research Framework for Strategic Processing
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“Keywords: metacognition, metamemory, monitoring, confidence judgments, domain-general processes Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xge0000746.supp Metacognition refers to the ability to monitor and control cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluentialThinking and Action: A Cognitive Perspective on Self-Regulation during Endurance Performance
Brick, N. E., MacIntyre, T. E., & Campbell, M. J. (2016) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00159 · Cited by 131
“Metacognition has been defined as an individual’s knowledge and cognitions about cognitive phenomena (Flavell, 1979) or, more simply, as “thinking about thinking” (Miller et al., 1970, p. 613).”
BackgroundInfluentialArtino, A. R. (2009) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-009-9020-9 · Cited by 143
“2003), and metacognition, a strategy where students monitor, control, and regulate their own cognitive activities and behaviors (Flavell 1979; Pintrich 1999).”
BackgroundAdrian Wells, A. (2006) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2006.01.005 · Cited by 131
Self‐regulation of time management: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions
Oettingen, G., Kappes, H. B., Guttenberg, K. B., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2015) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2090 · Cited by 146
“Can we teach MCII as a metacognitive strategy (Flavell, 1979; Nelson & Narens, 1994) that enables people to effectively manage their time?”
Rethinking Psychological Mindedness: Metacognition, Self-reflection, and Insight
Grant, A. M. (2001) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1375/bech.18.1.8 · Cited by 136
“The model also represents insight as being the product of the act of reflective inquiry (cf. Appelbaum, 1973), and shows a feedback loop in which new information can impact on an individual’s PM (cf. Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundLysaker, P. H., Minor, K. S., Lysaker, J. T., Hasson‐Ohayon, I., Bonfils, K. A., Hochheiser, J., & Vohs, J. L. (2019) · Schizophrenia Research Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.scog.2019.100142 · Cited by 130
“Metacognition has been an explicit subject of research for roughly four decades, beginning with one of its first formal definitions by Flavell (1979).”
BackgroundBoekaerts, M., & Rozendaal, J. S. (2009) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.03.002 · Cited by 131
Metacognitive beliefs and strategies in learning Chinese as a foreign language
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Chinese senior high school EFL students’ metacognitive awareness and reading-strategy use
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“Metacognitive awareness, or metacognition, was first defined by Flavell (1979) as one’s ability to understand, control, and manipulate his own cognitive process to maximize learning.”
BackgroundInfluentialTraining and developing adaptive teams: Theory, principles, and research.
Kozlowski, S. W. J. (1998) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10278-005 · Cited by 133
The Role of Moral Reasoning in Argumentation: Conscience, Character, and Care
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The impact of metacognitive scaffolding and monitoring on reading comprehension
Dabarera, C., Renandya, W. A., & Zhang, L. J. (2014) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2013.12.020 · Cited by 129
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“That is, they need to be aware of how well they know a specific topic (see meta-cognitive calibration, Pieschl, 2009) and monitor their search process in order to self-regulate knowledge acquisition in health communication (see Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundEffective Implementation of Metacognition
Serra, M. J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009) · doi:10.4324/9780203876428.ch15 · Cited by 146
“cognition about cognitive phenomena” ( Flavell, 1979 ), or simply “thinking about thinking.” It”
BackgroundToward interactive mobile synchronous learning environment with context-awareness service
Huang, Y., Kuo, Y., Lin, Y.-T., et al. (2008) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.11.009 · Cited by 129
“Based on the metacognition theory (Flavell, 1979; Schoenfeld, 1992a), the instructors and students can go through the discussion record to develop their own metacognitive strategies to help them perform better synchronous instruction and acquire better learning efficiency.”
Ning, H. K., & Downing, K. J. (2010) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.09.010 · Cited by 145
Neuronal Correlates of Metacognition in Primate Frontal Cortex
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“To our knowledge the term “metacognition” was coined in the late 1970s (Flavell, 1976), and psychological frameworks have been developed to study and understand metacognitive processes (Flavell, 1979; Nelson and Narens, 1990).”
Enhancing Vocabulary Development and Reading Comprehension through Metacognitive Strategies.
Çubukçu, F. (2008) · Cited by 125
Are epistemic emotions metacognitive?
Carruthers, P. (2016) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2016.1262536 · Cited by 133
“…that monitors, models, and controls regular first-order cognition – where the “monitoring and modeling” involves representations of first-order cognitive states and processes involved in learning, remembering, emoting, and knowing (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Flavell, 1979; Nelson & Narens, 1990).”
BackgroundA Journey into the Metacognitive Learning Strategies
Mitsea, E., & Drigas, A. S. (2019) · International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering (iJOE) · doi:10.3991/ijoe.v15i14.11379 · Cited by 137
“The term metacognition could be defined as the ability of individuals to know their cognitive functions, monitor them while they operate, control and adjust them according to the needs of the learning process [1], [2].”
BackgroundMetamemory in Alzheimer's Disease
Souchay, C. (2007) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70696-8 · Cited by 128
“Metamemory refers to the higher order cognitive processes involved in memory function, and encapsulates beliefs, attitudes, sensations and knowledge about memory function (e.g., Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluence of individual factors on presence
Sacau, A., Laarni, J., & Hartmann, T. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.11.001 · Cited by 127
“Metacognitive skills refer to people’s ability, e.g., to monitor one’s own understanding and learning and organize one’s cognitive resources (e.g., Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundDevelopmental change in working memory strategies: From passive maintenance to active refreshing.
Camos, V., & Barrouillet, P. (2011) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023193 · Cited by 121
“Among the various factors that are classically evoked in accounting for any developmental improvement, the discovery of new strategies and the change in strategy use have often been suggested (Flavell, 1979; Siegler, 1996).”
BackgroundA meta-cognitive sequential learning algorithm for neuro-fuzzy inference system
Subramanian, K. R., & Suresh, S. (2012) · Applied Soft Computing · doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2012.06.012 · Cited by 127
Creative metacognition and self-ratings of creative performance: A 4-C perspective
Kaufman, J. C., Beghetto, R. A., & Watson, C. L. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.05.004 · Cited by 175
“This definition is consistent with the larger concept of metacognition (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Pintrich, Wolters, & Baxter, 2000), which focuses on how people can recognize and monitor their own intellectual abilities.”
ResultMetacognition reconsidered: Implications for intervention research
Reeve, R. A., & Brown, A. L. (1985) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00912721 · Cited by 128
“It has been suggested that the development of metacognitive skills may be facilitated by social interactions with others (e.g., teachers, parents, peers) (e.g., Brown & French, 1979; Brown & Reeve, in press; Flavell, 1979; LCHC, 1983; Palincsar & Brown, 1981, 1984; Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1982; Wertsch, 1979).”
BackgroundA Conceptual and Computational Model of Moral Decision Making in Human and Artificial Agents
Wallach, W., Franklin, S., & Allen, C. (2010) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010.01095.x · Cited by 127
“32 and regulating cognitive strategies (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundCuevas, H. M., Fiore, S. M., & Oser, R. L. (2002) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/a:1020516301541 · Cited by 131
“Metacognition is a complex construct involving both knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes and the ability to control and regulate these processes (Flavell, 1979; Osman & Hannafin, 1992; Schraw, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluentialMotivating self-regulated learning in technology education
Barak, M. (2009) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-009-9092-x · Cited by 141
“Metacognition is broadly defined as any knowledge or cognitive process that refers to monitoring or controlling any aspect of cognition, for example, memory, attention, communication, learning, problem-solving and intelligence The notion of metacognition, which is sometimes presented as ‘thinking about thinking,’ ‘kno…”
BackgroundCoaching, test sophistication, and developed abilities.
Anastasi, A. (1981) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.36.10.1086 · Cited by 126
The neural system of metacognition accompanying decision-making in the prefrontal cortex
Qiu, L., Su, J., Ni, Y., Bai, Y., Zhang, X., Li, X., & Wan, X. (2018) · PLOS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2004037 · Cited by 125
“Metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive controlling are the two key components of metacognition (Flavell, 1979; Nelson and Narens, 1990; Dunlosky and Metcalfe, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialEpistemology, metacognition, and self-regulation: musings on an emerging field
Hofer, B. K., & Sinatra, G. M. (2010) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-009-9051-7 · Cited by 124
Assessing teachers' metacognition in teaching: The Teacher Metacognition Inventory
Jiang, Y., Ma, L., & Gao, L. (2016) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2016.07.014 · Cited by 159
Edossa, A. K., Schroeders, U., Weinert, S., & Artelt, C. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025416687412 · Cited by 159
“Email: ashenafi-kassahun.edossa@uni-bamberg.de metacognition, which reflects the knowledge about cognition and its regulation (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundVeenman, M. V. J. (2011) · Contemporary trends and issues in science education · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2132-6_2 · Cited by 137
Boucher, J. (2012) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361311430403 · Cited by 142
“‘Metacognition’ originally referred to the ability to reflect on and reason about one’s own knowledge and beliefs (Flavell, 1979), and is now sometimes used to cover a broad range of self-regulatory abilities (Dinsmore et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMetacomprehension judgements reflect the belief that diagrams improve learning from text
Serra, M. J., & Dunlosky, J. T. (2010) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2010.506441 · Cited by 133
“…JUDGEMENTS As proposed by Koriat (1997), one type of information that people consult when making metacognitive judgements for a task is their beliefs about their ability to perform the task, as well as the conditions under which the task is being performed (cf. Flavell, 1979; Hacker, 1998).”
BackgroundMetacognition in Multisensory Perception
Deroy, O. D., Spence, C. J., & Noppeney, U. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.08.006 · Cited by 140
Context-based learning and metacognitive prompts for enhancing scientific text comprehension
Dori, Y. J., Avargil, S., Kohen, Z., & Saar, L. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1470351 · Cited by 144
“Metacognition includes conscious selection of learning strategies and matching these to the task’s demands (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, Crippen, & Hartley, 2006).”
BackgroundKarlen, Y., Hertel, S., & Hirt, C. N. (2020) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.00159 · Cited by 172
“This further extends to one’s awareness and knowledge about the strengths and weaknesses of one’s memory and information processing (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundAzevedo, R. (2007) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-007-9018-5 · Cited by 137
“assumption that the phases (including forethought, planning, monitoring, control, and reaction/reflection) are hierarchically or linearly structured such that earlier phases must occur before later phases (see Boekaerts et al. 2000; Butler and Winne 1995; Corno 2006; Flavell 1979; Greene and Azevedo 2007; Hacker et al…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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