Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry

“This finding accords with the view that this heteromodal (higher order) association isocortex (Mesulam, 2000) plays a crucial role in metacognitive/executive top-down processes, which refer to the ability to monitor and control the information processing necessary to produce voluntary action (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognitions are thoughts about one’s own thoughts (Flavell, 1979; Werth, Strack, & Förster, 2002).”

“, in terms of meta-cognition such as evaluations of their current self-perception) than children (Flavell, 1979).”

“The first of these, metacognition, refers to the extent to which learners thought about, monitored, and controlled their learning activities (Flavell, 1979).”

“…implicit system of conflict and error monitoring supported by the posterior medial prefrontal cortex (PFC) (e.g. Ridderinkhof, van den Wildenberg, Segalowitz, & Carter, 2004), rather than the explicit monitoring and control associated with metacognition (see Fleming and Dolan (2012) for a review).”

“MK refers to knowledge, beliefs, ideas and theories about people as ‘cognitive creatures’ and about their diverse interactions with cognitive tasks and strategies (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition has been recognized as a most relevant predictor of learning (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1976, 1979; Glaser, 1990; Veenman & Elshout, 1995; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1990, 1993).”

“Both constructs are forms of higher order thinking (Krathwohl 2002), executing processes (Flavell 1979), and operates to maximize learning”

“(1989), Forester (1992), Thomas (1993), and Carspecken (1996).”

“Adept learners invoke cognitive strategies to make cognitive progress, and they invoke metacognitive strategies to monitor that progress (Flavell, 1979).”

“…work of the mind that involves reasoning and self-discipline using particular skills (Paul 1993), while reflective thinking is metacognition or a level of consciousness that exists through executive cognitive control and self-communication about experiences (Flavell 1979, Mezirow 1981).”

“…monitoring has been done to explore humans' capacity to recognize uncertainty and to know when they do not know (Brown et al. 1982; Dunlosky & Nelson 1997; Flavell 1979; Koriat 1993; Metcalfe & Shimamura 1994; Nelson 1992, Nelson & Dunlosky 1991; Nelson & Narens 1990; Reder 1996; Schwartz 1994).”

“There are three dimensions of metacognitive knowledge (Flavell 1979).”

“Knowledge about cognition refers to the knowledge or beliefs about what factors or variables interact in what ways to affect the course and outcomes of cognitive enterprises (Flavell 1979).”

“(e.g. Flavell, 1979; Biggs, 1988; Pintrich, 1995; Winne, 1996; Borkowski, 1996; Pintrich & Ruohotie, 2000).”

“Many assume the mindful use of regulatory processes, specifically knowledge and regulation of cognition, may precede effective use of learning strategies (e.g., Dunlosky, 1998; Flavell, 1979; Hacker, 1998).”

“Metacognitive experiences are defined as Bany conscious cognitive or affective experiences that accompany and pertain to any intellectual activities^ (Flavell 1979, p. 906).”

“In the case of ‘metacognition’, we drew on relevant literature to highlight its centrality to learning (Alexander, 2008; Bruner, 1996; Fisher, 2007; Flavell, 1979).”

“We suggest learning from business failure is a sensemaking process that requires an interplay of higher-order thinking, including metacognition (Flavell, 1979; Ford et al., 1998), analogous thinking (Hill & Levenhagen, 1995; Holyoak, 1985; Loewenstein et al., 1999), and complex thinking (Bird,…”

“Tutors may need to utilize metacognitive processes such as comprehension-monitoring and metamemory, which involve evaluation of the quality of one’s own knowledge and understanding (e.g. Flavell, 1979; Hacker, 1998; Maki et al. 2005).”

“Metacognition is defined as ‘knowledge of one’s own cognitive processes’ (Flavell 1979).”

“Metacognition refers to knowledge about cognition and the regulation of cognitive activities (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979; Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters, & Afflerbach, 2006; Vrugt & Oort, 2008).”

“…by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Lai, 2011).”

“The development of metacognitive abilities is generally regarded as a relatively sophisticated, higher order set of cognitive functions that occur late in the developmental sequence (Flavell, 1979).”

“Our definition is consistent with previous scholars’ conceptions of metacognive knowledge (Flavell, 1979; Pintrich, Wolters, & Baxter, 2000) that highlights how metacognition represents a combination of different but interrelated types of knowledge.”

“They actively process their cognitive observations, create new categories in their memory storage, and consider multiple perspectives in making sense of their experiences (Flavell, 1979).”

“Most models of SRL propose a general time-ordered sequence that students follow as they perform a task, but there is no strong assumption that the various phases (such as planning, monitoring, control) are hierarchically or linearly structured such that earlier phases must occur before later phases (see Ainley and Pat…”

“Based on previous research (Efklides, 2006, 2008; see also Efklides, 2001; Flavell, 1979; Salonen et al., 2005) the hypothesis was that metacognitive experiences would be present in the beginning of episodes of socially shared metacognition (Hypothesis 4).”

“Metacognition and Study Skills Metacognition is crucial in controlling and guiding thinking.(1) Dunlosky proposed a model of how metacognitive control impacts study time.”

“Adaptive help seeking requires self-knowledge that is calibrated both to the reality of task performance and to one’s metacognitive ‘‘feelings’’ of confidence (see Flavell, 1979).”

“Flavell (1979) viewed metacognition as learners’ knowledge of their own cognition, defining it as ‘knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena’ (p. 906).”

“Based on the more general concept of metacognition (Flavell, 1979), cultural metacognition is knowledge of and control over one’s thinking and learning activities in the specific domain of cultural experiences and strategies.”

“Off-line cognitive monitoring corresponds to selfassessment of global cognitive functioning and covers declarative knowledge about one’s own cognitive abilities.(30) Online monitoring involves ongoing assessment of one’s performance within the context of a particular cognitive task.”

“Another related aspect of shared variance among these higher-order skills might be metacognition, one’s awareness and regulation of his or her own cognitive states and processes (Flavell, 1979).”

“without being consciously aware of it (see also Flavell, 1979 ).”

“Flavell (1979) offers a broad, hopeful vision for the usefulness of metacognitive instruction, suggesting that metacognitive ideas “could be parlayed into a method of teaching children (and adults) to make wise and thoughtful life decisions as well as to comprehend and learn better in formal…”

“…thinking) and Wittrock’s development of his theory of generative learning (our use of active cognitive processing leads to meaningful learning) that led to the study of learning strategies from both an empirical perspective and an applied educational perspective (see Flavell, 1979; Wittrock, 1974).”

“In a now classic paper, Flavell (1979) described three major facets of metacognition, namely metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive experiences, and metacognitive skills, that is, strategies controlling cognition.”

“Metacognition is defined here as conscious and deliberate thoughts about a person’s behavior, emotions, and other thoughts (Flavell, 1979; Hacker, 1998).”

“Metacognition is considered to be, at least in part, a conscious process (referred to as metacognitive awareness [Flavell, 1979; Nelson, 1996]) that is situated within a social context (Allen & Armour-Thomas, 1993; Jost, Kruglanski, & Nelson, 1998) and different from cognition.”

“…Ideas – involves specific personal characteristics (e.g., Rhodes, 1961) Listening to One’s Inner Voice – also known as reflection or metacognition (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Sch€on, 1993) By breaking down creativity into its cognitive components, Treffinger et al. resolve some of the ambiguity in…”

“However, due ,severalresearchershavere- centlyextendedthesetheoriesandmodelsbyadvancingmod-elsofmetacognition(Bandura,1986;Brown,1975,1987; Flavell,1979,1985;Hacker,1998;Hacker,Dunlosky,& Graesser,1998;Schraw&Moshman,1995)andself-regu-latedlearning(SRL;Butler&Winne,1995;Corno&…”

“The higher (meta) level monitors and controls cognitive processing on the lower (object) level, never the other way around (Flavell, 1979; Nelson & Narens, 1994).”

“First introduced in 1979 by Flavell (14), metacognition is described as “thinking about thinking” (15).”

“In this context, I define metacognition as the ability to understand and monitor one’s own thoughts and the assumptions and implications of one’s activities (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara & Campione, 1983; Butterfield & Belmont, 1977; Flavell, 1979).”

“As noted by several other authors (Achtziger, Martiny, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer, 2012; Flavell, 1979; Nelson, Narens, & Shimamura, 1994), self-control as we have characterized it is inherently metacognitive: In the absence of a higher order process, when two impulse-generating processes— one more valued in the long run…”

“Reflecting on how well one is doing in the life-long enterprise of solving challenging problems is a higher kind of meta-cognitive activity in which accomplished problem-solvers engage (Ericsson et al. 1993; Flavell 1979).”

“Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge. knowledge Metacognition is defined as the ability to monitor and reflect upon one’s own performance and capabilities [142,143].”

“From a developmental point of view, metacognitive knowledge precedes metacognitive skills (Flavell, 1979; Flavell, Green, & Flavell, 1995; Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 1993).”

“In addition, metacognitive ability is a specific form of cognitive ability that reflects one’s ability to ‘‘think about thinking’’ and monitor cognition (Flavell, 1979).”

“In the psychological tradition, confidence is thought to arise from the monitoring of mental content; it is sometimes framed as a form of metacognition associated with other subjective human qualities, such as introspection, awareness, and even self-reflective consciousness (Charles et al., 2013; Flavell, 1979; Kunimo…”

“Kitchener (1983) noted that the term "has been variously referred to as 'cognitive monitoring' (Flavell, 1979), 'executive processes', 'self-communication', and 'knowledge about knowledge"' (p. 222).”

“As such, metacognitive dysfunction has been highlighted as a key source of maladaptive behaviour in educational, clinical and societal contexts (Flavell, 1979, Hoven et al., 2019, Rollwage et al., 2018).”