Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry

“…Borkowski, & Schneider, 1987), meta- cognitive processes (Borkowski, 1992; Borkowski & Peck, 1986; Brown, 1978, 1984; Campione & Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1976, 1979; Shore & Dover, 1987; Barfurth et al., 2009; Sternberg, 1985, 1990), specific intellectual intentions or extracognitive abilities…”

“Another construct which is commonly held to be closely related to social cognition is metacognition, defined as the ability to think about thinking (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition is defined as knowledge about and regulation of one’s own cognitive activities (Flavell 1979) and can be divided into metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skillfulness (Veenman et al. 2006).”

“Planning is also an essential component of metacognition (Brown et al., 1983), which refers to individuals’ awareness of and control over their cognitions (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition was originally referred to as the knowledge about and regulation of one ’ s cognitive activities in learning processes (Flavell, 1979), while more recent research makes a distinction between metacognitive knowledge and skills revealing ample evidence that metacognitive skills are an…”

“The term metacognition is most often associated with Flavell (1979), who stated that metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation.”

“Metacognition was originally defined as “cognition over cognition” or “knowledge about knowing”, which a learner needs to control and monitor his learning (Flavell 1979).”

“According to Flavell (1979), metacognition refers to an awareness of one’s own cognitive processes and products along with the controlled regulation and orchestration of these mental activities and strategies.”

“John Flavell introduced the term metacognition which refers to the awareness and understanding of one’s thought process (Flavell, 1979).”

“The metacognitive knowledge dimension comprises declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and conditional knowledge, reflecting learners’ beliefs and knowledge about tasks, strategies, and learners themselves that affects the course and outcome of cognitive enterprise (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition – or being aware of one’s learning and improving the learning experience using one’s own cognitive resources [110] – was used in two articles that focused on the metacognitive components of knowledge, goals, and actions [68], [99], whereas one article was based on distributed cognition theory, which argu…”

“…Rellinger, & Pressley, 1990); improvements in academic competence and causal attribution (Chan, 1996); important influences on goals and actions (Flavell, 1979); increases in domain-general knowledge and regulatory skills that enable cognitive control in multiple domains (Schraw, 1998); higher…”

“A priori beliefs about fluency (as compared to experienced fluency) (Flavell 1979; Kardash and Howell 2000; Koriat 1997; Schommer 1990).”

“MC is defined as B thinking about thinking ^ (Miller et al. 1970; Flavell 1979) and includes two main types of skills: knowledge of knowledge and regulation of knowledge (Brown 1978).”

“Metacognitive strategies, such as self-monitoring, have been found to play a significant role in helping students set learning goals that are in line with their current capabilities (Flavell, 1979).”

“Flavell (1978, 1979) introduced the term ‘ metacognitive knowledge ’ defining it as knowledge about one's own (or someone else's) cognitions, motivations and emotions.”

“…parts: (a) knowledge of one’s own cognition; (b) knowledge about the specific cognitive strategies that might be used for various learning tasks, and (c) procedural knowledge of when and where to use acquired strategies (Flavell 1976; 1979; 1987; Garner and Alexander 1989; Pintrich et al. 2000).”

“Metacognitive knowledge can be further subdivided according to whether the knowledge concerns oneself, others, task-specific knowledge, or one’s possession of cognitive strategies (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Efklides, 2008; Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition was originally defined by Flavell (1979) as Bthinking about thinking^.”

“The metacognitive strategies that students need to develop for productive SRL help them to become aware of their own thinking and learning throughout all three phases of SRL (Flavell 1979).”

“According to cognitive psychology theory, human judgment is largely influenced by the metacognitive experience of processing the information (Flavell 1979; Schwarz et al. 1991; Tversky and Kahneman 1973).”

“Another theme we identified,metacognition, the ability to think about one’s thinking [36], is an essential skill for self-directed learning.”

“Metacognitive activity reflects an individual's awareness, knowledge and regulation of his or her cognitive processes ( Flavell, 1979”

“Flavell (1979) defined metacognition as “thinking about one’s own thinking.””

“Flavell (1979) suggests that “goals (or tasks) refer to the objectives of a cognitive enterprise” (pp. 906-907).”

“…as effective for communication or performance), which does not encompass other components of metacognition such as knowledge about the people involved (e.g. the learners themselves and their partners) and the task (e.g. knowledge of resources available to execute an activity) (see Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognitive knowledge refers to one’s beliefs and factual knowledge about cognitive processes in general (in self and others), whereas metacognitive monitoring and control refer respectively to one’s awareness of and ability to regulate one’s own current, online mental states and cognitive activity (Flavell, 1979).”

“This could be explained by an influence of metacognition, our ability to monitor and control our own cognitive processes and abilities (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2008; Flavell, 1979; Fleming et al., 2012; Koriat, 2007; Metcalfe, 1996; Nelson & Narens, 1990).”

“Originally, metacognition was mostly used in the field of learning were it was defined as the thinking about our own thinking (Flavell, 1979).”

“son (1990, 1993) that was adapted from Kreutzer, Leonard, and Flavell (1975) and Myers and Paris (1978).”

“It is also active checking, following regulations and assessment of cognitive activities (Flavell, 1979).”

“gov monitor one’s cognitive processes, the ability to take action to control those processes, and general knowledge about how one’s cognitive processes function (Flavell, 1979; Nelson, 1996).”

“Metacognition, broadly de fi ned as “ thinking about thinking, and regulating that thinking ” (Flavell, 1979; Wenden, 1998), underlies all intelligent human behavior.”

“Metacognition, broadly defined as thinking about thinking, is multifaceted and consists of three primary components: beliefs (including knowledge and perceptions), monitoring, and control (Flavell 1979).”

“It should be noted that this conception of “task” is in line with the traditional, broader understanding of task as in Flavell (1979), Wenden (1987), and Williams and Burden (1997), and is different from the more recent and narrower definition of “task” in “task-based” approaches to language…”

“Metacognition supports flexible problem solving, and is thought to both monitor and control internal and external attention (Flavell, 1979; Fleming et al., 2012).”

“Metacognition, defined as “thinking about thinking,” refers to higher order mental processes involved in learning, such as self-checking and evaluating the cognitive process after the performance (Flavell, 1979; O’Neil & Abedi, 1996).”

“According to Flavell [37], meta-cognition is awareness and knowledge of the mental process for monitoring, regulate, and direct the desired goal.”

“Like humans (e.g., Carr, Alexander, & Folds-Bennett, 1994; Cawley & Miller, 1986; Flavell, 1979; Koriat, 1993; Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994; Nelson, 1992; Schwartz, 1994; Terrace & Metcalfe, 2004), some nonhuman animal species apparently monitor and respond to uncertainty states (Hampton, 2001; Inman & Shettleworth, 199…”

“…learning activities is essential to the explanation of successful learning because it enables individuals to direct the overall cognitive activity, managing and controlling their cognitive activities in order to solve specific problems (Flavell 1992; Pintrich and García 1994; Schraw 1989).”

“At around age 4, children are able to make systematic distinctions between appearance and reality when reporting on how objects appear and what they really are (Flavell et al., 1986). There is evidence that children learn to apply this distinction to the social world by age 6, if not earlier. Harris, Donnelly, Guz, an…”

“Theorists in the field (e.g. Flavell, 1979; Wells, 2000) are in broad agreement in terms of distinguishing between two fundamental dimensions of metacognition: (1) knowledge about cognition – that which is knowable and reportable; and (2) the regulation of cognition – the planning, evaluating,…”

“Metacognitive and learning strategy approaches have pointed out that knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies is a necessary precondition for efficient strategy use (Flavell, 1979; Pressley, Borkowski, & Schneider, 1989; Schneider & Artelt, 2010; Verschaffel et al., 1999).”

“Copyright © 2010 Heldref Publications theory and personality development, indicating that appropriately focused metacognitive instruction increases practical intelligence, thus enabling students to gain greater insights into their learning strategies (Flavell, 1979; Lambert, 2000).”

“Interest in describing the development of children's knowledge and conscious con rol of their own cognitive processes (metacognition) has expanded in re cent years (Brown, 1977; Cavanaugh & Perlmutter, 1982; Flavell, 1979).”

“Perhaps the most important contributors to this work are Flavell (1979) and”

“Metacognition refers to the beliefs and processes used to appraise, regulate or monitor thinking (Flavell, 1979).”

“• Questioning: asking questions to oneself can be used to assess knowledge levels; asking questions to others can be an effective strategy to bridge gaps in knowledge (Flavell, 1979).”

“Metacognition concerns knowledge about and regulation of cognitive processes in learning activities (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979).”

“It has two components—knowledge and regulation (Flavell 1979).”

“Although early studies of metacognition have focused on individual learning (e.g. Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979), recent research has expanded its focus to include the role of metacognitive awareness in collaborative learning (e.g. Çini et al., 2020; Goos et al., 2002; Rienties et al., 2009).”

“Metacognition involves the state of being aware of one’s thinking along with the control and regulation of one’s cognitive behaviours (Flavell, 1979; Zimmerman, 2002).”