Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious

“…of a dilemma: either they stick to their purported ambitions to give a realistic description of human decision-making and give 1 For classic texts on dual processing, see Shiffrin and Schneider (1977), Evans (1989), Epstein (1994), Sloman (1996), Stanovich and West (2000), Lieberman et al. (2002).”

“, sensory and non-sensory (91), declarative and procedural (47,246), controlled and automatic (192), top-down (concept-driven) and bottom-up (data-driven) (86), conscious and unconscious (9), and rational and experiential (59).”

“…Informa business www.psypress.com/cogemotion DOI: 10.1080/02699930802420745 (e.g., Gigerenzer, Todd, & the ABC Research Group, 1999; Hamm, 2008; Hogarth, 2001, 2008; Stanovich & West, 2000) and independent from intention (e.g., Epstein, 1991, 1994; Hogarth, 2001, 2007; Topolinski & Strack, 2008).”

“New research by social psychologists (Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996; Wilson et al., 2000), neuroscientists (Damasio, 1994; LeDoux, 1996; Panksepp, 1998; Rolls, 1999) and decision researchers (Lerner & Keltner, 2000, 2001; Loewenstein, 1996; Loewenstein et al., 2001; Mellers et al., 1997; Peters &…”

“Dual-process views of behaviour (of which there are several variants) have attracted a good deal of interest over the past decade and a half (e.g., Barrett, Tugade, & Engle, 2004; Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Epstein, 1994; Evans, 2008, 2010; MacDonald, 2008; Rothbart, Ellis, Rueda, & Posner, 2003; Strack & Deutsch, 2004).”

“According to dual process models of personality and information processing (e.g. Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2009; Epstein, 1994; Greenwald, Banaji, Rudman, Farnham, Nosek, & Mellott, 2002; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000), one can distinguish between explicit selfesteem…”

“Third, knowledge acquired in an action-based and meaningful context promotes behavioral change (Epstein, 1994; Cordero, Todd, & Abellera, 2008; McKenzie-Mohr, 2008) by building self-efficacy (Nisbet, 2009; Owens, 2000) and forming the individual and social basis of new behaviors (McKenzie-Mohr,…”

“If the feelings are unpleasant, they motivate actions and thoughts anticipated to avoid the feelings (Epstein, 1994).”

“According to dual-process theories of decision making and behavior (Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Epstein, 1994; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006; Petty & Cacioppo, 1981), relatively automatic processes, such as the experience of affect, are not the only way to influence decision making.”

“Many theories of decision making distinguish two ways of making decisions (Epstein, 1994; Evans, 2008; Osman, 2004; Sloman, 1996).”

“It is a holistic approach that reconciles behaviour with past experience (Epstein 1994), and is an evolutionary adaptation that automatically converts uncertain and adverse aspects of experience into affective responses (e.”

“It most directly implies the seminal work of authors such as Kahneman (2011), Evans and Stanovich (2013), Epstein (1994), Sloman (1996), or Kruglanski and Gigerenzer (2011).”

“, attitudes, values, affect, knowledge and skills) that include cognition (Burns & D’Zurilla, 1999; Epstein, 1994; Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987; Kahneman, 2003; Sinclair & Ashkanasy, 2005).”

“Within many dual-processing frameworks, System 1 thinking and reasoning is hypothesized as evolutionarily the more ancient of the two systems (Evans, 2003); its core processes are rapid, parallel, and automatic, permitting judgment in the absence of conscious reasoning (Epstein, 1994; Stanovich & West, 2000).”

“Further, contemporary psychoanalytic theorists such as Epstein (1994) have argued for the need to incorporate both experiential, emotional systems and rational, analytic systems in conceptualizations of human functioning.”

“When making choices in experiments, participants often experience conflicts between “knowing” and “feeling” (Denes-Raj and Epstein 1994), reporting that “they had two opposite views… one based on their knowledge that the [two proportions] were equal and the other based on their strong intuitive…”

“Mathematical models of fuzzy-trace theory have been developed (e.g., Brainerd, Reyna, & Mojardin, 1999; Reyna & Brainerd, 1995a) that subsume and extend older distinctions, such as familiarity and recollection, and that differ from other dual-processing models (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996).”

“…by theories that contrast between an experiential self-system, which contains constructs of the self that are based in gut feelings and concrete imagery, and a rational self-system, which contains constructs of the self that are generated through logical reasoning (Epstein, 1994; Woike, 2008).”

“…dual process theories, decision-making has been characterized by two competing processes: one more affective and intuitive and the other more reason-based and deliberative (i.e., System 1 vs. System 2; Chaiken, & Trope, 1999; Epstein, 1994; Evans & Stanovich, 2013; Kahneman, 2011; Sloman, 1996).”

“This is the experiential mode (Epstein, 1994; Slovic et al., in press), which enabled us to survive during the long period of human evolution and remains the most natural and most common way to respond to threat, even in the modern world.”

“level (Epstein, 1994; McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989; Schultheiss, 2001; Schultheiss & Brunstein, 1999).”

“A number of researchers (Epstein, 1994; Nicholson, 2000; Sadler-Smith, 2007) have argued that the intuitive system is probably older, and in evolutionary terms more "primitive and basic" than the rational system, which depends in some measure on consciousness and conscious control (Reber, 1993: 7).”

“…system possesses two subsystems: a subsystem 1 that functions automatically, with little effort, uses heuristics; and a subsystem 2 that requires volition, effort, and is rule-based (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996; Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Kahneman & Frederick, 2002; Stanovich & West, 2000).”

“That is, building on earlier work (e.g., Epstein, 1985, 1994; Epstein & Pacini, 1999; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006; Gawronski & Strack, 2004; Sloman, 1996; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004), it could be proposed that rationalistic mind-sets instigate propositional and…”

“…or conscious) and an implicit (i.e., automatic or nonconscious) mode ofprocessing, thesemeasuresareassumed tocapture information that is processed outside of subjective awareness (Epstein, 1994; Greenwald et al., 2002; McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989; Wilson, Lindsley, & Schooler, 2000).”

“On the contrary, there is room in psychology for a multiplicity of models, and some theoreticians and researchers have argued persuasively that psychoanalytic concepts can be integrated with those from behavioral (Wachtel, 1977), biological (Winson, 1985), and cognitive psychology (Epstein, 1994).”

“They found a gender difference, as expected, and also a correlation with neuroticism, low sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1994), endorsement of universalism values (Schwartz & Bilsky, 1990), and experiential thinking (Epstein, 1994; Epstein et al., 1996).”

“Thus, supporting the notion that the two information-processing systems interact to produce responses ( Epstein, 1994 ), some minimum degree of rational engagement may be necessary for implicit SE to influence explicit SE.”

“Implicit SE refers to the experiential mode, while explicit SE refers to the cognitive mode as distinguished by dual‐process models of information processing (eg, Epstein, 1994 ; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”

“…2004; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1984), decision-making (Chang & Sanfey, 2008; Dijksterhuis, Bos, Nordgren, & van Baaren, 2006; Kahneman, 2003; Sanfey & Chang, 2008; Sloman, 1996; Wilson & Schooler, 1991), and reasoning (Epstein, 1994; Evans, 2003; Stanovich & West, 2000).”

“This type of abstract information relies on analytical processing of second hand information, rather than emotional understandings based on lived experience (Epstein, 1994; Weber, 2006).”

“However, in a parallel dual process model (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996) both processes are assumed to be engaged simultaneously from the start.”

“Whereaswords and numbers require the use of the rational processing system (which is analytical, logical and deliberative), images allow for information processing using the experiential processing system (which is holistic, intuitive and affective; Epstein 1994).”

“Likewise, many psychological theories invoke a distinction between two qualitatively different modes of mental functioning, which have been variously termed analytic versus intuitive, rational versus experiential, reflective versus reflexive, or simply reasoning versus intuition (for overviews, see Bastick, 1982; Epst…”

“Dual process theories of thinking explain this tendency to rely on descriptive information by assuming two kinds of reasoning processes (Epstein, 1994; Evans, 2006; Kahneman, 2002; Sloman, 1996; Stanovich, 1999).”

“These findings can also be taken as consistent with views (e.g., Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Epstein, 1994; Kahneman, 2003; Stanovich & West, 2000; Wilson & Schooler, 1991) proposing that an effortless processing system can be more effective and adaptive in solving (some) problems than a more effortful,…”

“As this example suggests, problems, errors, and biases arise when the two systems ‘‘pull’’ for different solutions (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994; Stanovich, 1999) and (1) cues for heuristic processing overwhelm cues for analytic processing (e.g., highly contextualized tasks activate irrelevant beliefs…”

“In contrast, the remaining participants were instructed to be “as rational and analytic as possible” ( Epstein 1991, 1994 ).”

“…automatic, spontaneous, experiential, heuristic, intuitive, impulsive, and reflexive) and explicit (also termed conscious, controlled, rational, systematic, analytical, and reflective; Schneider and Shiffrin, 1977; Chaicken, 1980; Epstein, 1994; Strack and Deutsch, 2004; Lieberman, 2007).”

“This makes it nearly effortless, as experience and observation are automatically stored and retrieved (Epstein 1994).”

“…be used to explain various findings in judgment and decision making such as the evaluability of options (e.g., Hsee, 1996), proportion dominance (e.g., Hsee, 1998), risk and benefit judgments (Alhakami & Slovic, 1994; Finucane et al., 2000), the ratio bias (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994), and so forth.”

“Dual process theorists place intuition in contrast with analysis (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Hogarth, 2001).”

“Carver, Johnson, & Timpano, (2017) have helpfully drawn attention to the contrast between reflective and reflexive mode of cognition suggested by Epstein (1994) to delineate a dichotomy between a basic, responsive to emotion mode (reflexive) and deliberative mental function (reflective).”

“…to the exclusion of all nonaffective cognitions), that encodes experience in the form of concrete exemplars and narratives, and that operates according to a set of inferential rules that differ from those of a relatively affect-free, abstract, analytical, rational system^ (Epstein 1994, p. 713).”

“Dual processing models highlight a more rapid, emotionally driven, and nondeliberative mode of processing characterized by feeling before thinking (Epstein, 1994; Evans, 2008; Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor, 2004).”

“The human thought processes can be divided into two intertwined systems, the analytic system and the experiential system (Epstein, 1994).”

“Typically, theories on modes of cognition have focused on the dual processes of intuition and analysis (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Evans & Over, 1996; Sloman, 1996).”

“First, we demonstrate how balance theory is useful theoretically for linking modes of thinking and behavior (see Bargh and co-workers, 1994, 1996; Epstein, 1994).”

“In fact, appraisal theoretical process models of emotion elicitation draw on the same dual-process models (Epstein 1994) as the affect heuristic (Slovic et al.”

“The type of learning described in Parts 1 and 2 limits the potential lasting effects of ethics education, according to educational theorists such as John Dewey (Dewey, 1938), David Kolb (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2002; Kolb, 1984), and Seymour Epstein (Epstein, 1994).”