Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious

“As noted, this provides a useful distinction between judgments or actions that can be thought of as being intuitive or analytic in nature and has helped to illuminate many phenomena (Epstein, 1994). Yet, if one pushes the dual process idea further and, in particular, starts to look deeper into nonconscious and automat…”

“Hence the idea is that (rather than parallel activation of the two systems, e.g., Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996) there would be parallel activation of two different types of intuitive System-1 responses: A heuristic intuitive response based on mere semantic and stereotypical associations, and a…”

“In recent years, investigators working independently in the areas of information processing (Logan, 1988, 1989) and social cognition and personality (Epstein, 1990, 1994; Epstein & Meier, 1989; Epstein, Lipson, Holstein, & Huh, 1992) have pointed to a potentially important coping distinction that…”

“Thus, people ‘‘behave against their better judgment’’ (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994, p. 819) when they give a stereotypical response: They detect that they are biased but fail to block the biased response.”

“According to this framework, decisions are made through the interplay of at least two systems, one involving mental processes that are relatively quick, effortless, and intuitive (System 1) and another involving mental processes that are relatively slow, effortful, and deliberative (System 2; Epstein, 1994; Kahneman,…”

“Consequently, they should display little if any buffering effect of affirmation (see also Epstein, 1994; Simon et al., 1997).”

“Dual processing models of cognition (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Kahneman, 2003; Stanovich & West, 2000) distinguish between analytic and intuitive styles (this distinction has also been called “system 2” vs. “system 1,” “think” vs. “blink,” etc.).”

“While explicit SE refers to the cognitive mode, implicit SE refers to the experiential mode, as conceptualized by dual-process models of information processing (e.g. Epstein, 1994; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000).”

“…1986), hot system versus cold system (Metcalfe and Mischel 1999), reflexive system versus reflective system (Lieberman et al. 2002), experiential system versus rational system (Epstein 1994, 2003), and the “approach/avoidance” versus “true/false” distinction (Zajonc 1998, 591), to name a few.”

“Based on findings from these diverse areas of research, Epstein (1994) proposed a two-system model of human information processing, the so-called cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST), that distinguishes between a rational system and an experiential system (for earlier versions of CEST, see Epstein, 1973, 1990, 19…”

“…theories of cognition have become increasingly required for explaining cognitive, personality, and social processes (e.g., Allen & Thomas, 2011; Epstein, 1994, 2003; Evans, 2008, 2010; Evans & Frankish, 2009; Gilhooly & Murphy, 2005; Gilhooly & Fioratou, 2009; Kahneman, 2011; Kahneman &…”

“Faced with the impressive gap between people’s actual performance and normative standards (i.e., the so-called normative/descriptive gap), advocates of the dual-process framework of thinking (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Evans & Over, 1996; Goel, 1995; Kahneman, 2000; Sloman, 1996; Stanovich, 1999) have posited the existence…”

“Risk scholars have suggested that past experiences are tagged with affect and that people automatically recall and draw on these affective associations when judging a future risk (Epstein 1994; Slovic et al. 2004); this mental shortcut has been termed the ‘‘affect heuristic.’’”

“Successful analytic reasoning depends on the acquisition of abilities that are frequently prescribed as normative for reasoning and decision-making (Epstein, 1994).”

“Arguably, humanity evolved in circumstances where an immediate affective responsive to danger rather than a slower deliberative one may well have been helpful (Epstein, 1994). Loomes (2005), however, takes the argument one stage further by stressing the point that affective issues are best understood not as a distorti…”

“These findings also connect with recent work in psychology regarding the importance of affect and other noncognitive factors in judgment and decision making (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Loewenstein, 1996; Schwarz, 1990; Slovic, 2001; Zajonc, 1984).”

“One possible interpretation of the individual differences displayed here is in terms of two-process theories of reasoning (Epstein, 1994; Evans, 1984, 1996; Evans & Over, 1996; Sloman, 1996).”

“The objective for psychodynamic scholars is to account full-bloodedly for subjects’ conflicted wishes, irrationality and emotionality (Epstein, 1994; Gabriel and Carr, 2002; Hoyer and Steyaert, 2015; Petriglieri and Petriglieri, 2020; Petriglieri and Stein, 2012) as they engage in identity…”

“It is intentional, analytical, verbal, and relatively affect free;1 and (b) An “experiential” system that is more automatic, preconscious, holistic, and “associanistic,” according to the term coined by Epstein (1994).”

“These responses come through the rational and experiential systems of thinking (Epstein, 1994).”

“This work includes studies by Mowrer (1960a, 1960b) on conditioned emotions, Epstein (1994) on rational and experiential modes of processing information, Fazio (1995) on the accessibility of affect associated with attitudes, and Gray (1990) on the learning of approach and avoidance behaviors.”

“We further assume that this intuition serves as a decision default (Epstein, 1994) and that the decision default is 410 SIMMONS AND NELSON”

“The relationship between explicit and implicit self-evaluation has received much attention in recent years (e.g., Bosson et al., 2000; Epstein, 1994; Jordan, Spencer, & Zanna, 2003; Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino-Browne, & Correll, 2003; Koole & DeHart, in press; Koole et al., 2001; Koole & Pelham, 2003; Pelham et al…”

“…on associative principles of similarity and temporal structure, whereas RB involves the cognitive manipulation of symbolic rules and is not expected to be affected by manipulations involving the priming of associative principles (Epstein, 1994; Epstein, Donovan, & Denes-Raj, 1999; Sloman, 1996).”

“There are several likely reasons for this: (1) availability and ease-of-scoring of Epstein et al's Rational Experiential Inventory (REI), an instrument for assessing individual differences in preferred approaches to information processing based on independent rationality ('need for cognition') and experientiality ('fa…”

“Moreover, consumers differ in the extent to which they view affective experience as detrimental or beneficial to rational judgment (Avnet, Pham, and Stephen 2012; Epstein 1994; Hsee et al. 2003; Isen 2001).”

“Freud can certainly be described as a dual-process theorist.”

“Clinical ( Epstein, 1994 ), social ( Chaiken and Trope, 1999 ), as well as cognitive psychologists ( Sloman, 1996 ; Kahneman, 2003 ) have recently proposed very similar dual-processing models of decision-making.”

“The Rational-Experiential Inventory-Short Form (REI-S) was used to capture individual differences in two factorially independent processing modes (Rational and Experiential), as proposed by Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994; Epstein, 1994; Epstein et al., 1996).”

“The basic point we want to note here is that while we agree with Sloman and Epstein that detection is flawless, we do not necessarily share their specific dual process assumptions as put forward in their original models.”

“Considerable research has established that different thinking styles are better suited for different tasks or activities (e.g. Epstein 1994 and 2003; Hammond et al 1987; Hammond 1996; Hogarth 2005; Kahneman and Frederick 2002; Kahneman 2003).”

“Pacini and Epstein (1999) reported a significant positive relationship between Experientiality and emotional expressivity, lending support to the idea that an experiential thinking style is related to affect and emotionality (Epstein, 1994).”

“We think it is reasonable to suggest that the primary response to social concordance is in the affective and non-verbal realm, rather than the more cognitive and verbally explicit domains of communication [51].”

“There are several dual process theories (Deutsch & Strack, 2006; Epstein, 1973, 1994; Evans & Over, 1996; Hammond, 1996; Hogarth, 2005; Klein, 1998; Levinson, 1995; Pollock, 1991; Reber, 1993; Sloman, 1996; E. R. Smith & DeCoster, 2000) with considerable overlap of content and structure (see…”

“Emotion plays a central role in dual-processing theories of thinking, knowing, and information processing [12].”

“... inferential processing to determine whether they I-share with another person, although we suspect that people sometimes do deliberate over this issue (e.g., I wonder if that kiss meant the same to her as it did to me. . .). More often than not, however, the inference of I-sharing probably manifests itself as a ver…”

“Several studies confirm the importance of affect in decision-making (Damasio, 1994), as a source of information (Schwarz and Clore, 1988), in attitude formation (Fazio, 1995), and in motivating behavior ( Epstein, 1994 ).”

“Dual-process theories have identified two modes of thought, the intuitive and the analytic (Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996; Stanovich and West, 2000, 2008).”

“It is now generally recognized in these disciplines that individuals can use two modes of thinking when assessing circumstances and evaluating risks: rational/analytic (cognitive) and experiential (affective) systems (Epstein 1994; Slovic et al. 2004; Wang 2006).”

“analytical) to explain human judgments and actions (Epstein, 1994; Kahneman et al, 2002; Loewenstein, 1996; Sloman, 1996); an admittedly over-simplistic model that, nevertheless, seems very relevant to addiction.”

“If-only thinking refers to the tendency for people to have differential emotive responses to outcomes based on the differences in counterfactual alternative outcomes that might have occurred (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994; Epstein, Lipson, Holstein, & Huh, 1992; Miller, Turnbull, & McFarland, 1990).”

“Since this time, clinical theorists from various orientations have drawn similar parallels regarding the importance of engaging multiple pathways involved in emotion generation (e.g., Bucci, 1997; Epstein, 1994; for a review, see Samoilov & Goldfried, 2000).”

“…when arriving at judgments of moral responsibility (and perhaps when making moral judgments in other domains as well [Haidt, 2001; Haidt, Koller, & Dias, 1993; Shweder & Haidt, 1994]), a more deliberative mindset can ‘‘undo’’ the effects of moral intuitions (Epstein, 1994; Epstein et al., 1992).”

“, “incubation”, Gilhooly, 2016), and other features can be proposed to differentiate System 1 and 2 processing (e.g., “autonomy”, Pennycook, 2017). See Evans and Stanovich (2013), and the debate between Melnikoff and Bargh (2018) and Pennycook, De Neys, Evans, Stanovich, and Thompson (2018), for an extensive discussio…”

“A radically different solution to explain how we know that our intuition can be trusted or we need to engage in deliberation is to simply assume that System 1 and System 2 operate in parallel (Epstein, 1994; Sloman, 1996).”

“According to Epstein (1994) , the rational system "is a deliberative, effortful, abstract system that operates primarily in the medium of language" (p. 715) that is "experienced actively and consciously, and requires justification via logic and evidence" (p. 711 ). The experiential system, on the other hand, is "a cru…”

“…in what is known as the “cool” or cognitive system, which is characterized by deliberate, analytical, rational reactions based on systematic processing that is subject to intentional control (Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; see also Bazerman, Tenbrunsel, & Wade-Benzoni, 1998; Epstein, 1994; Haidt, 2001).”

“The psychoanalytic emphasis on the unconscious has been met with attempts at integration with contemporary cognitive views of the unconscious (e.g., Epstein, 1994); the brain–gut–microbiota axis represents a further, physiological means through which unconscious processes may impact on our…”

“Affect defined as a feeling of ‘goodness’ or ‘badness’ guides the decision making process [16-19].”

“…of the author’s broad propositions—that people adapt, develop strengths to meet needs, grow and change, have varying strength levels, sometimes grow by struggling with adversity, and so on—underlie or are incorporated in many, more testable theories (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).”

“Researchers have given these dual-system models various names, such as experiential versus rational (Epstein 1994), associative versus rule-based (Sloman 1996), affect versus cognition (Shiv and Fedorikhin 1999), desire versus willpower (Hoch and Loewenstein 1991), feeling-based versus reason-based…”

“Indeed, individual differences in reliance on respectively analytical (rational) and intuitive (experiential) thinking could contribute to proneness to supernatural beliefs (Epstein, 1994).”

“Some dual-system theorists claim that the systems are interactive (Sloman, 1996), some claim that they operate in parallel (Epstein, 1973, 1994; Evans & Over, 1996), and some claim that they operate serially (Gilbert, 1989); while others propose that System 1 is the default system, and only later…”

“1 Although these associations are not “unconscious” in the strict sense (Epstein, 1994), they may nevertheless provide insight into otherwise hidden dimensions of patients’ mental lives (Westen, 1999).”

“Reliance on feelings is faster, effortless, and more efficient than reliance on analysis to navigate in a complex, uncertain, or dangerous environment (Epstein, 1994).”

“To explain why people so frequently seem unable to act as they intend, many models of self-regulation have adopted the dual-process view that has gained prominence in explaining all types of psychological processes (e.g., Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Epstein, 1994; Smith & DeCoster, 2000).”

“Evidence from decision-making literature indicates that the affective consequences of engagement in behaviour can have a strong influence on subsequent behaviour, and that decision making is often a function of experiential processing rather than rational consideration of costs and benefits (Epstein, 1994; Finucane, A…”

“…processing, one of which (subcortical) is quick and associative, the other (with more cortical involvement) is slower, more deliberative, and symbolic (see also Epstein, 1973, 1994; Smolensky, 1988; Shastri and Ajjanagadde, 1993; Sloman, 1996; Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999; Smith and DeCoster, 2000).”

“The use of reaction time data and the underlying assumptions are inspired by dual-process accounts of reasoning (Epstein, 1994; Evans & Over, 1996; Kahneman, 2000; Sloman, 1996; Stanovich, 1999).”