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Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious
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“the implicit system is highly contextual and only changes in an enduring way after considerable time, effort, and / or intensity of experience.”
From Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention (2012) · cites this paper as Epstein, 1994
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“some general dual-process theories in psychology (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004) suggest that such reductions are likely to be highly contextual and short-lived.”
From Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention (2012) · cites this paper as Epstein, 1994
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Reconnecting psychoanalysis to mainstream psychology. Challenges and opportunities.
Bornstein, R. F. (2005) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/0736-9735.22.3.323 · Cited by 67
McCabe, J. G., Krauss, D. A., & Lieberman, J. D. (2009) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.902 · Cited by 66
“CEST posits two processing systems: rational and experiential.”
InfluentialFrom bias to sound intuiting: Boosting correct intuitive reasoning
Boissin, E., Caparos, S., Raoelison, M., & Neys, W. D. (2021) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104645 · Cited by 72
“One explanation for this phenomenon relies on the idea that human reasoning arises from the interaction between two types of processes or “ systems ” : the intuitive system and the deliberative system (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Evans & Stanovich, 2013; Kahneman, 2011; Sloman, 1996).”
BackgroundKumar, P., Islam, M. A., Pillai, R., & Sharif, T. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13085 · Cited by 107
“Early research [10] associated the decision-making quality to two cognitive factors namely deliberation and intuition.”
BackgroundAkinci, Ç., & Sadler‐Smith, E. (2013) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12030 · Cited by 78
Juanchich, M., Dewberry, C., Sirota, M., & Narendran, S. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.1875 · Cited by 63
Wibbenmeyer, M. J., Hand, M. S., Calkin, D. E., Venn, T. J., & Thompson, M. P. (2013) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2012.01894.x · Cited by 66
Self-Anchoring in Conversation: Why Language Users Do Not Do What They “Should”
Keysar, B., & Barr, D. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.010 · Cited by 67
Beliefs and the Big Five: Cognitive Bases of Broad Individual Differences in Personality
Langston, C. A., & Sykes, W. E. (1997) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1006/jrpe.1997.2178 · Cited by 69
Durability Bias in Affective Forecasting
Gilbert, D. T., Pinel, E. C., Wilson, T. D., Blumberg, S. J., & Wheatley, T. P. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.018 · Cited by 66
Behavioral decision-making in finance: An overview and assessment of selected research
Bondt, W. F. M. D., Mayoral, R. M., & González, E. V. (2013) · Spanish Journal of Finance and Accounting / Revista Española de Financiación y Contabilidad · doi:10.1080/02102412.2013.10779742 · Cited by 73
“Dual models of information processing distinguish between the affective and the cognitive systems (Epstein, 1994; Finucane et al., 2000; Kahneman, 2002, 2011; Sloman, 2002; Slovic et al., 2004; Camerer et al., 2005).”
BackgroundZollo, L., Pellegrini, M. M., & Ciappei, C. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3221-8 · Cited by 71
“Psychological research would support such a claim, referring to the fact that emotions and intuition are linked one to another thanks to the experiential system (Dane and Sonenshein 2014; Epstein 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialStrategic and Nonstrategic Information Acquisition
Berger, C. R. (2002) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00809.x · Cited by 70
Kraft, P. S., Günther, C., Kammerlander, N. H., & Lampe, J. (2022) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2022.106207 · Cited by 65
Mirror neurons and their function in cognitively understood empathy
Corradini, A., & Antonietti, A. (2013) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.03.003 · Cited by 77
“System 2 (Stanovich & West, 2000) – also called analytical (Slovic et al., 2002), deliberative (Hogarth, 2001), judgment-based (Kahneman, 2003), rational (Epstein, 1994) – operates slowly, intentionally, and flexibly, predominantly on the basis of abstract representations and logical rules.”
BackgroundThe effects of time delay in reciprocity games
Neo, W. S., Yu, M. S., Weber, R. A., & González, C. (2012) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2012.11.001 · Cited by 64
“Notably “System 1” is associated not only with emotions (Epstein, 1994), but other forms of intuitive processing, such as heuristic reasoning.”
BackgroundIntuitive decisions on the fringes of consciousness: Are they conscious and does it matter?
Price, M. C., & Norman, E. (2008) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500000140 · Cited by 63
“What all these related distinctions argue for, rather more clearly than Kahneman (2002) or Epstein (1994), is that we can be directly conscious of the products of processes which have a broadly automatic informationprocessing style.”
BackgroundInfluentialAdam, M. B., & Reyna, V. F. (2005) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.493 · Cited by 67
The Organizing Functions of Dream Mentation
Fosshage, J. L. (1997) · Contemporary Psychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/00107530.1997.10746997 · Cited by 65
Vater, A., Schröder–Abé, M., Schütz, A., Lammers, C., & Roepke, S. (2010) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.03.007 · Cited by 64
“Discrepant explicit and implicit attitudes toward the self might activate conflicting behavioral schemata and competing emotions (see dual-process models, Epstein, 1994; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000) and may thus produce conflicting action tendencies.”
BackgroundStupple, E. J. N., Pitchford, M., Ball, L. J., Hunt, T. E., & Steel, R. P. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0186404 · Cited by 61
Dual-process theory, conflict processing, and delusional belief
Bronstein, M. V., Pennycook, G., Joormann, J., Corlett, P. R., & Cannon, T. D. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101748 · Cited by 68
“For decades, it has been theorized that human cognition makes use of two types of reasoning (Epstein, 1994; James, 1890; Thompson, 2009; Wason & Evans, 1975; though this hypothesis remains subject to some debate, see Evans & Stanovich, 2013, for a review).”
BackgroundTowards affect-integrated driving behaviour research
Jeon, M. (2015) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1463922x.2015.1067934 · Cited by 70
“Researchers have proposed that people apprehend reality and risk by two interactive, parallel processing systems: the analytic system and the experiential system (Epstein 1994; Slovic et al. 2004).”
BackgroundThe costs of caring: Gender identification increases threat following exposure to sexism
Eliezer, D., Major, B., & Mendes, W. B. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.09.015 · Cited by 61
“…perspective is consistent with dual process models of cognition which propose that human thought consists of two divergent systems; an automatic, affective, unconscious system and a controlled, rational, conscious system (Epstein, 1994; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodClimate Change Education Through TV Weathercasts: Results of a Field Experiment
Zhao, X., Maibach, E. W., Gandy, J., Witte, J., Cullen, H. M., Klinger, B. A., Rowan, K. E., Witte, J. C., & Pyle, A. S. (2013) · Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society · doi:10.1175/bams-d-12-00144.1 · Cited by 65
Working Memory Capacity and a Notorious Brain Teaser
Neys, W. D., & Verschueren, N. (2006) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.53.1.123 · Cited by 61
“The present study approached the MHD from a dual process theory perspective (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Evans, 2003; Stanovich & West, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDeveloping and validating the multidimensional proactive decision-making scale
Siebert, J. U., & Kunz, R. (2015) · European Journal of Operational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2015.06.066 · Cited by 74
Analytical cognitive style moderation on promotion and turnover intention
Busari, A. H., Mughal, Y. H., Khan, S. N., Rasool, S., & Kiyani, A. A. (2017) · Journal of Management Development · doi:10.1108/jmd-12-2015-0184 · Cited by 63
Trémolière, B., & Djeriouat, H. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101561 · Cited by 64
Keeping the home fires burning: The affect heuristic and wood smoke pollution
Hine, D. W., Marks, A. D. G., Nachreiner, M., Gifford, R., & Heath, Y. (2007) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.01.001 · Cited by 62
“…with the view that the affect-based experiential system is the default system guiding decision making and behavior in most circumstances (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Finucane et al., 2000; Slovic et al., 2005), which further highlights the importance of developing environmental interventions that…”
BackgroundWindschitl, P. D., Martin, R., & Flugstad, A. R. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.742 · Cited by 63
“That is, when attempting to determine the objective likelihood of an event, people intentionally use information that they deem to be relevant, and they attempt, when possible, to integrate that information according to their understanding of learned rules (e.g., mathematical rules, modes ponens; see Sloman, 1996, and…”
BackgroundTeenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast?
Worsley, A., & Skrzypiec, G. (1997) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/s0271-5317(97)00003-1 · Cited by 62
Chen, N. N. (2015) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.12348 · Cited by 61
Hofmann, W., & Baumert, A. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930902847193 · Cited by 67
“The rationalist and intuitionist accounts may best be reconciled on the background of dualsystem models of information processing (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Strack & Deutsch, 2004).”
BackgroundWhy Young Men Drive Dangerously: Implications for Injury Prevention
Nell, V. (2002) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00172 · Cited by 61
When Less Is More: Evolutionary Origins of the Affect Heuristic
Kralik, J. D., Xu, E. R., Knight, E. J., Khan, S. A., & Levine, W. J. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046240 · Cited by 63
“reduce the processing load in complex environments [4,5,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23].”
BackgroundKlaczynski, P. A., & Cottrell, J. M. (2004) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780442000042 · Cited by 61
“…people have only a fleeting awareness that they have been activated, and because their activation elicits intuitions or ‘‘gut’’ feelings that they are ‘‘right’’ for the immediate situation (Epstein, 1994), decision heuristics are often used in situations for which their relevance is doubtful.”
BackgroundLocander, D. A., Mulki, J. P., & Weinberg, F. J. (2014) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20702 · Cited by 66
Psychic Numbing and Mass Atrocity
Slovic, P., Zionts, D., Woods, A. K., Goodman, R., & Jinks, D. P. (2018) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv550cbm.13 · Cited by 64
“As Epstein (1994) has observed: “There is no dearth of evidence in every day life that people apprehend reality in two fundamentally different ways, one variously labeled intuitive, automatic, natural, nonverbal, narrative, and experiential, and the other analytical, deliberative, verbal, and…”
BackgroundGwebu, K. L., Wang, J., & Guo, L. (2014) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2014.08.004 · Cited by 60
“While different conceptualizations have been used, what these models have in common is the distinction between decision processes that are deliberative, analytic, slow, and conscious and those that are intuitive, automatic, rapid, and unconscious [22,23].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWhat is Communication Science?
Berger, C. R., Roloff, M. E., & Roskos‐Ewoldsen, D. R. (2010) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412982818.n1 · Cited by 60
How trust and emotions influence policy acceptance: The case of the Irish water charges
Rodríguez-Sánchez, C., Schuitema, G., Claudy, M., & Esper, F. S. (2018) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12242 · Cited by 71
“Dual process models such as the Elaboration-Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) and Dual-Process Theory (Epstein, 1994) suggest that people process information either centrally via conscious reasoning and deliberate evaluations, or peripherally, implying that external cues are used to process information, and to…”
MethodEducation for Environmental Citizenship and Responsible Environmental Behaviour
Goldman, D., Hansmann, R., Činčera, J., Radovic, V. M., Telešienė, A., Balžekienė, A., & Vávra, J. (2020) · Environmental discourses in science education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20249-1_8 · Cited by 62
Cozzio, C., Volgger, M., Taplin, R., & Woodside, A. G. (2020) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.05.050 · Cited by 69
Intuition, prayer, and managerial decision‐making processes: a religion‐based framework
Vasconcelos, A. F. (2009) · Management Decision · doi:10.1108/00251740910966668 · Cited by 60
“Also, intuition has been referred to as a by-product of non-logical (Barnard, 1938), non-rational (Simon, 1987), non-conscious processes (Epstein, 1994; Shapiro and Spence, 1997), or non-linear intelligence (Carlson and Kaiser, 1999).”
BackgroundVinitzky, G., & Mazursky, D. (2011) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20398 · Cited by 60
“…suggest that the compatibility between tasks' cognitive or affective characteristics and cognitive thinking style has a significant effect (Epstein, 1994, 2003; Hammond, 1996; Hammond et al., 1987; Hogarth, 2002; Kahneman, 2003; Kahneman & Frederick, 2002; Fabrigar & Petty, 1999; Petty &…”
BackgroundRochat, L., Maurage, P., Heeren, A., & Billieux, J. (2018) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-018-9387-3 · Cited by 66
Spence, A., & Townsend, E. (2005) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2005.09.003 · Cited by 57
“From the perspective of the single attitude model, it has been suggested that discordant explicit and implicit attitudes held towards a particular attitude object will result in internal conflict when determining behaviour (Epstein, 1994; Wilson et al, 2000).”
Schematic integration of traumatic events
Cason, D., Resick, P. A., & Weaver, T. L. (2002) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(01)00085-x · Cited by 59
Environmental morale and motivation
Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511490118.017 · Cited by 62
Friese, M., & Hofmann, W. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.06.003 · Cited by 59
“2004; see also Epstein, 1994; Fazio & Towles-Schwen, 1999), assume that impulsive processes are more important in guiding behavior when control resources (such as cognitive capacity or self-regulatory resources) are scarce when compared to conditions of full resources.”
BackgroundHarper, C. A., & Hogue, T. E. (2014) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2014.989170 · Cited by 59
“Based on cognitive-experiential self-theory (Epstein, 1991, 1994), rational processing relies on the logical evaluation of information, whilst experiential processing is rapid and based upon an affective evaluation of stimuli.”
BackgroundMethodFaith in intuition and behavioral biases
Alós‐Ferrer, C., & Hügelschäfer, S. (2012) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2012.08.004 · Cited by 56
Hart, P. S., & Leiserowitz, A. (2009) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524030903265823 · Cited by 59
“…the political science literature, Marcus et al. (2000) provide the useful affective intelligence model, which builds, in part, upon previous work by Epstein (1994) and Zajonc (1980) and includes the dual affective subsystems of disposition and surveillance as a way to describe why individuals…”
ResultSemantic coherence and fallacies in estimating joint probabilities
Wolfe, C. R., & Reyna, V. F. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.650 · Cited by 59
Osman, M. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613483475 · Cited by 59
Kościelniak, M., Rydzewska, K., & Sędek, G. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00659 · Cited by 55
“Classical dual-process models (e.g., Bargh, 1994; Epstein, 1994; Kahneman, 2003) differentiate the deliberative processes (effortful, analytical, often verbal, and slow) from the experiential processes (automatic, associative, often affective, and fast).”
BackgroundPriming Intuition Decreases Endorsement of Instrumental Harm but Not Impartial Beneficence
Capraro, V., Everett, J. A. C., & Earp, B. D. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2019.04.006 · Cited by 59
“One system (System 1) is said to be fast, intuitive, and primarily affective, whereas the other system (System 2) is said to be slow, deliberative, and rational (Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Epstein, 1994; Evans & Stanovich, 2013; Kahneman, 2011; Sloman, 1996; but see Melnikoff & Bargh, 2018).”
Netz, J. H., Svensson, M. G. A., & Brundin, E. L. (2019) · Long Range Planning · doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2019.101910 · Cited by 62
Emotions and Risky Technologies
Coeckelbergh, M., & Roeser, S. (2010) · The International library of ethics, law and technology · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8647-1 · Cited by 60
Morgan, C., Fajardo, T. M., & Townsend, C. (2021) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-020-00760-0 · Cited by 66
“Holistic processing, typically faster and less cognitively demanding (Epstein 1994), should make images feel easier to process than text (Schwarz 2004).”
BackgroundSilicon nanoforms in crop improvement and stress management
Dhakate, P., Kandhol, N., Raturi, G., et al. (2022) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135165 · Cited by 58
Citizens' Response Patterns to Warning Messages
Vihalemm, T., Kiisel, M., & Harro‐Loit, H. (2011) · Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5973.2011.00655.x · Cited by 58
“, Heath & Palenchar, 2000; Waymer & Heath, 2007; Heat, 2010). Perry (1985) stresses that in order to generate any protective action, there must be enough time to react, family members gathered, certain safety plan available and last but not least, the threat must be perceived as ‘real’.”
Firm Image and Individual Investment Decisions
Ackert, L. F., & Church, B. K. (2006) · Journal of Behavioral Finance · doi:10.1207/s15427579jpfm0703_4 · Cited by 57
Communicating Risks: Examining Hazard and Outrage in Multiple Contexts
Lachlan, K. A., & Spence, P. R. (2010) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01511.x · Cited by 57
Nuclear Energy, Risk, and Emotions
Roeser, S. (2011) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-011-0027-6 · Cited by 57
“In psychology, this view is called dual process theory (cf., e.g., Epstein 1994; Sloman 1996; Haidt 2001).”
BackgroundAge differences in the effects of conscious and unconscious thought in decision making.
Queen, T. L., & Hess, T. M. (2010) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0018856 · Cited by 57
Preparing For the Inevitable: Environmental Risk Perceptions and Disaster Preparedness
Kirschenbaum, A. B. (2005) · International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters · doi:10.1177/028072700502300204 · Cited by 57
Berg, C. A., Meegan, S. P., & Klaczynski, P. A. (1999) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/016502599383720 · Cited by 56
“Factors, such as the salience of the recent experience, general inhibitory processes (Hasher & Zacks, 1988), the similarity of recent experiences to specic problem scenarios, the use of case-based reasoning (Riesbeck & Schank, 1989), and the use of a different system of thought (Epstein, 1994), may be involved.”
BackgroundProbability Judgment across Cultures
Yates, J. F., Lee, J., Sieck, W. R., Choi, I., & Price, P. C. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.017 · Cited by 55
Trust, risk and health care reform
Taylor‐Gooby, P. (2006) · Health Risk & Society · doi:10.1080/13698570600677092 · Cited by 57
“More broadly, a number of studies argue that emotional and affective factors are relevant to the way in which people assess a wide range of situations and interactions (Epstein 1994 , Damasio 1996 ) and some recent work suggests affect influences trust in the context of a number of risk areas (Eiser et al .”
BackgroundEpstein, S. J. (1998) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10256-004 · Cited by 57
Self-citationVater, A., Ritter, K., Schröder-Abé, M., Schütz, A., Lammers, C.-H., Bosson, J. K., & Roepke, S. (2013) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.07.001 · Cited by 54
Changing Behavior Using Social Cognitive Theory
Łuszczyńska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.003 · Cited by 81
Felmingham, C. M., Adler, N. R., Ge, Z., Morton, R. L., Janda, M., & Mar, V. J. (2021) · American Journal of Clinical Dermatology · doi:10.1007/s40257-020-00574-4 · Cited by 57
Fulton, E. A. (2021) · Fish and Fisheries · doi:10.1111/faf.12537 · Cited by 61
Linking risk preferences and risk perceptions of climate change: A prospect theory approach
Villacis, A. H., Alwang, J., & Barrera, V. H. (2021) · Agricultural Economics · doi:10.1111/agec.12659 · Cited by 61
Locus coeruleus neurons encode the subjective difficulty of triggering and executing actions
Bornert, P., & Bouret, S. (2021) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001487 · Cited by 59
Does CEO emotion matter? CEO affectivity and corporate social responsibility
Wang, L., Lin, Y. L., Jiang, W., Yang, H., & Zhao, H. (2022) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.3474 · Cited by 62
Intuition in Organizational Decision Making
Sadler‐Smith, E., & Sparrow, P. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199290468.003.0016 · Cited by 66
Social‐Psychological Theories and Adolescent Health Risk Behavior
Gibbons, F. X., Kingsbury, J. H., & Gerrard, M. (2012) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00412.x · Cited by 57
Intuitive vs. analytical decision making: which is preferred?
Sjöberg, L. (2003) · Scandinavian Journal of Management · doi:10.1016/s0956-5221(01)00041-0 · Cited by 56
Wanted: training competencies for the twenty‐first century
Kalargyrou, V., & Woods, R. H. (2011) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/09596111111122532 · Cited by 56
“According to McClelland, regardless of gender or culture, people are driven by those three motives that are discovered implicitly through the analysis of metaphors ( Epstein, 1994”
BackgroundAnimals, archetypes, and advertising (A 3 ): The theory and the practice of customer brand symbolism
Lloyd, S., & Woodside, A. G. (2013) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2013.765498 · Cited by 56
“Symbols associate two things, have both literal and figurative meaning, and are seen as a means of encoding reality (Epstein, 1994).”
BackgroundChisholm, C. U., Harris, M. S., Northwood, D. O., et al. (2009) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/j.1465-3435.2009.01394.x · Cited by 56
Bridging Levels of Analysis in Risk Perception Research: The Case of the Fear of Crime
Jackson, J., Allum, N., & GASKELL, G. D. (2008) · Forum qualitative Sozialforschung · doi:10.17169/fqs-7.1.63 · Cited by 56
Radel, R., Sarrazin, P. G., & Pelletier, L. G. (2009) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.31.5.657 · Cited by 61
“, Strack & Deutsch, 2004), personality (Epstein, 1994), and social psychology (e.g., Chaiken & Trope, 1999)—that unanimously acknowledge both a conscious and an unconscious system responsible for behavior. Although each of these models used different labels to denominate the highlighted systems (e.g., automatic vs. co…”
BackgroundInfluentialLiu, Z., Wang, X., Min, Q., & Li, W. (2018) · Information Systems Journal · doi:10.1111/isj.12195 · Cited by 62
“The automatic process is intuitive, rapid, automatic, and unconscious (Epstein, 1994; Evans, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodPsychological security as the foundation of personal psychological wellbeing (analytical review)
Zotova, O. Y., & Karapetyan, L. V. (2018) · Psychology in Russia State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2018.0208 · Cited by 64
Preferences for energy sustainability: Different effects of gender on knowledge and importance
Arachchi, J. I., & Managi, S. (2021) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2021.110767 · Cited by 56
Gardner, B., Rebar, A. L., & Lally, P. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.041 · Cited by 73
Schimel, J., Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., O’Mahen, H., & Arndt, M. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.3.446 · Cited by 81
Cameron, L. D., & Leventhal, H. (1995) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb01821.x · Cited by 54
Executive coaching can enhance transformational leadership
Cerni, T., Curtis, G. J., & Colmar, S. (2010) · International Coaching Psychology Review · doi:10.53841/bpsicpr.2010.5.1.81 · Cited by 55
Proportional Reasoning as a Heuristic-Based Process
Gillard, E., Dooren, W. V., Schaeken, W., & Verschaffel, L. (2009) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.2.92 · Cited by 52
Role expansion as a persuasion process
Grant, A. M., & Hofmann, D. A. (2011) · Organizational Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/2041386610377228 · Cited by 60
“We base this proposition on psychological theory and research that has identified two discrete information processing systems: the ‘‘cool’’ cognitive system and the ‘‘hot’’ experiential system (Bazerman, Tenbrunsel, & Wade-Benzoni, 1998; Epstein, 1994; Grant & Wade-Benzoni, 2009; Haidt, 2001; Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999).”
BackgroundSmall, D. A. (2010) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.03.001 · Cited by 53
“Study 4 Dual-process models in decision making theorize that people think in two distinct manners: one more affective/intuitive and the other more deliberative/calculative (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Kahneman & Frederick, 2002; Loewenstein & Small, 2007).”
BackgroundAffect and acceptability: exploring teachers’ technology-related risk perceptions
Howard, S. K. (2011) · Educational Media International · doi:10.1080/09523987.2011.632275 · Cited by 55
“Research has shown it is more dif fi cult to change risk perceptions derived from the experiential system, than the analytical system (Epstein, 1994; Slo-vic et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialDecreasing consumers’ risk perception of food additives by knowledge enhancement in China
Miao, P., Chen, S., Li, J., & Xie, X. (2019) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103781 · Cited by 55
Consumers’ Acceptance of Agricultural Fertilizers Derived from Diverted and Recycled Human Urine
Cohen, A. S., Love, N. G., Nace, K., & Árvai, J. (2020) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c00576 · Cited by 62
Metadata
- Authors
- Epstein, S.
- Corresponding author
- Epstein, Seymour
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 709-724
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W4320300817
- Cited by
- 2,883
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 80 · 2025: 90 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 100 · 2022: 124 · 2021: 145 · 2020: 161 · 2019: 148 · 2018: 133 · 2017: 120 · 2016: 133 · 2015: 137 · 2014: 139 · 2013: 131 · 2012: 123
- FWCI
- 33.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Jungian Analytical Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychology and Mental Health
- Keywords
- unconscious, cognitive unconscious, psychoanalytic theory
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