Comparative longitudinal structural analyses of the growth and decline of multiple intellectual abilities over the life span.
Abstract
Latent growth curve techniques and longitudinal data are used to examine predictions from the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence (Gf-Gc theory; J. L. Horn & R. B. Cattell, 1966, 1967). The data examined are from a sample (N approximately 1,200) measured on the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (WJ-R). The longitudinal structural equation models used are based on latent growth models of age using two-occasion "accelerated" data (e.g., J. J. McArdle & R. Q. Bell, 2000; J. J. McArdle & R. W. Woodcock, 1997). Nonlinear mixed-effects growth models based on a dual exponential rate yield a reasonable fit to all life span cognitive data. These results suggest that most broad cognitive functions fit a generalized curve that rises and falls. Novel multilevel models directly comparing growth curves show that broad fluid reasoning (Gf) and acculturated crystallized knowledge (Gc) have different growth patterns. In all comparisons, any model of cognitive age changes with only a single g factor yields an overly simplistic view of growth and change over age.
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Fluid and crystallized skills both develop rapidly early in life but follow distinct trajectories into middle and later adulthood; crystallized abilities remain generally robust and steady while fluid abilities decline with age.
“Both fluid and crystallized skills develop rapidly early in the life span but follow distinct trajectories into middle and later adulthood, with crystallized abilities remaining generally robust and steady while fluid abilities decline with age (Horn & Cattell 1967, McArdle et al. 2002).”
From School Readiness and Self-Regulation: A Developmental Psychobiological Approach (2015) · cites this paper as McArdle et al. 2002
The present results are consistent with previous cross-sectional results from every Wechsler scale since Wechsler-Bellevue, Salthouse's analyses, Woodcock-Johnson results, and adult versions of Kaufmans' tests, providing strong evidence that intelligence is measured by Wechsler's scales.
“the present results are consistent with previous cross-sectional results—from every Wechsler scale since Wechsler–Bellevue”
From Cognitive Aging Revisited: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the WAIS-5 (2025) · cites this paper as McArdle et al. 2002
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Cognitive Aging Revisited: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the WAIS-5
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- Authors
- McArdle, J. J., Ferrer-Caja, E., Hamagami, F., & Woodcock, R. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 115-142
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- OpenAlex
- W2079588284
- Cited by
- 544
- References
- 8
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 19.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01ag004704-02)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, cognitive aging, intellectual ability, fluid reasoning
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Cognition Disorders, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Neuropsychological Tests, Severity of Illness Index, Incidence
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