A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity

Lövdén, Martin; Bäckman, Lars; Lindenberger, Ulman; Schaefer, Sabine; Schmiedek, Florian

doi:10.1037/a0020080

Cited by 731Cognitive Abilities and TestingCognitive Functions and MemoryNeural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity

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Lövdén, Martin, Bäckman, Lars, Lindenberger, Ulman, Schaefer, Sabine, Schmiedek, Florian·2010·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/a0020080

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Abstract

Does plasticity contribute to adult cognitive development, and if so, in what ways? The vague and overused concept of plasticity makes these controversial questions difficult to answer. In this article, we refine the notion of adult cognitive plasticity and sharpen its conceptual distinctiveness. According to our framework, adult cognitive plasticity is driven by a prolonged mismatch between functional organismic supplies and environmental demands and denotes the brain's capacity for anatomically implementing reactive changes in behavioral flexibility (i.e., the possible range of performance and function). We distinguish between 2 interconnected but distinct cognitive outcomes of adult cognitive plasticity: alterations in processing efficiency and alterations in representations. We demonstrate the usefulness of our framework in evaluating and interpreting (a) increments in frontal brain activations in the course of normal aging and (b) the effects of cognitive training in adulthood and old age. Finally, we outline new research questions and predictions generated by the present framework and recommend design features for future cognitive-training studies.

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Individuals with lower baseline cognitive ability demonstrate greater performance gains following cognitive training compared to those with higher baseline cognitive ability.
“For instance, individuals with lower baseline cognitive ability demonstrate greater performance gains following cognitive training compared to those with higher baseline cognitive ability, potentially due to a sufficient “mismatch” between the task demand and functional supply of the brain [68–72].”
From Primary outcome from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults study (ACT): A tDCS and cognitive training randomized clinical trial (2023) · cites this paper as [72]
Some explanations for specific transfer effects, such as those observed in this study, are that they are due to knowledge gained from the training and to familiarity with the task and computer-based assessment methods.
“Some explanations have been suggested for specific transfer effects (such as those observed in this study), which would be due to knowledge gained from the training (e.g., [72]) and to familiarity with the task and computer-based assessment methods.”
From Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating (2019) · cites this paper as [72]
The mismatch model of cognitive plasticity suggests that increasing demand on cognitive processes leads to expansion of resources associated with cognitive functioning.
“The mismatch model of cognitive plasticity suggests that increasing the demand on cognitive processes leads to expansion of resources associated with cognitive functioning [22].”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [22]
As noted in the mismatch model of cognitive plasticity, if a training task is too difficult, the trainee may become overwhelmed and give up.
“As noted in the mismatch model of cognitive plasticity, if a training task is too difficult, the trainee may become overwhelmed and give up [22].”
From Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training. (2016) · cites this paper as [22]

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Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing
Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F. I. M., Duarte, A., Grady, C. L., Lindenberger, U., Nyberg, L., Park, D. C., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., et al. (2018) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-018-0068-2 · Cited by 1,289 · see citing works
Self-citation
Education and cognitive functioning across the life span
Lövdén, M., Fratiglioni, L., Glymour, M. M., Lindenberger, U., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100620920576 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
Self-citation
Do “brain-training” programs work?
Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100616661983 · Cited by 1,183 · see citing works
Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”
Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616635612 · Cited by 910 · see citing works
Working-memory training in younger and older adults: training gains, transfer, and maintenance
Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., & Bäckman, L. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00063 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Self-citation
Human cognitive aging: <i>Corriger la fortune?</i>
Lindenberger, U. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1254403 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Self-citation
Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies
Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Effects and mechanisms of working memory training: a review
von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2014) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-013-0524-6 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Computerized and virtual reality cognitive training for individuals at high risk of cognitive decline: Systematic review of the literature
Coyle, H., Traynor, V., & Solowij, N. (2015) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2014.04.009 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Working memory training and transfer in older adults: Effects of age, baseline performance, and training gains.
Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Rose, N. S., Putzmann, J., Pydde, A., & Kliegel, M. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032982 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Neuronal effects following working memory training.
Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Jonides, J. (2012) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2011.10.001 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Brain training with non-action video games enhances aspects of cognition in older adults: a randomized controlled trial
Ballesteros, S., Prieto, A., Mayas, J., Toril, P., Pita, C., Ponce de LeÃ³n, L., Reales, J. M., & Waterworth, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00277 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Cognitive rehabilitation in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review
Mitolo, M., Venneri, A., Wilkinson, I. D., & Sharrack, B. (2015) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2015.05.004 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Advanced MRI techniques to improve our understanding of experience-induced neuroplasticity
Tardif, C. L., Gauthier, C. J., Steele, C. J., Bazin, P.-L., Schäfer, A., Schaefer, A., Turner, R., & Villringer, A. (2016) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.08.047 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Distinct transfer effects of training different facets of working memory capacity.
von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2013) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2013.02.002 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Direct-current stimulation does little to improve the outcome of working-memory training in older adults
Nilsson, J., Lebedev, A. V., Rydström, A., & Lövdén, M. (2017) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797617698139 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citation
Training versus engagement as paths to cognitive enrichment with aging.
Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., Payne, B. R., Roberts, B. W., Kramer, A. F., Morrow, D. G., Payne, L., Hill, P. L., Jackson, J. J., Gao, X., Noh, S. R., et al. (2014) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0038244 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
No evidence for true training and transfer effects after inhibitory control training in young healthy adults.
Enge, S., Behnke, A., Fleischhauer, M., Küttler, L., Kliegel, M., & Strobel, A. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0036165 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
The malleability of working memory and visuospatial skills: A randomized controlled study in older adults.
Stepankova, H., Lukavsky, J., Buschkuehl, M., Kopecek, M., Ripova, D., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034913 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Can Task-Switching Training Enhance Executive Control Functioning in Children with Attention Deficit/-Hyperactivity Disorder?
Kray, J., Karbach, J., Haenig, S., & Freitag, C. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00180 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Training and transfer effects of response inhibition training in children and adults
Zhao, X., Chen, L., & Maes, J. H. R. (2018) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12511 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Training working memory: Limits of transfer
Sprenger, A. M., Atkins, S. M., Bolger, D. J., Harbison, J. I., Novick, J. M., Chrabaszcz, J. S., Weems, S. A., Smith, V., Bobb, S., Bunting, M. F., et al. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.013 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Individual differences and long-term consequences of tdcs-augmented cognitive training
Katz, B., Au, J., Buschkuehl, M., Abagis, T., Zabel, C., Jaeggi, S. M., & Jonides, J. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01115 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
At least eighty percent of brain grey matter is modifiable by physical activity: A review study
Batouli, S. A. H., & Saba, V. (2017) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.06.002 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
The impact of auditory working memory training on the fronto-parietal working memory network
Schneiders, J. A., Opitz, B., Tang, H., Deng, Y., Xie, C., Li, H., & Mecklinger, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00173 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Does working memory training have to be adaptive?
von Bastian, C. C., & Eschen, A. (2016) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-015-0655-z · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Working memory training mostly engages general-purpose large-scale networks for learning
Salmi, J., Nyberg, L., & Laine, M. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.019 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Non-pharmacological intervention for memory decline
Cotelli, M., Manenti, R., Zanetti, O., & Miniussi, C. (2012) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00046 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The early effects of external and internal strategies on working memory updating training
Laine, M., Fellman, D., Waris, O., & Nyman, T. J. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22396-5 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“(1) Selective updating of digits (SUD) is a WM updating task based on Murty and colleagues26.”
Method
N-back Versus Complex Span Working Memory Training
Blacker, K. J., Negoita, S., Ewen, J. B., & Courtney, S. M. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0044-1 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Dual N-back working memory training in healthy adults: A randomized comparison to processing speed training.
Lawlor-Savage, L., & Goghari, V. M. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151817 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“As noted in the mismatch model of cognitive plasticity, if a training task is too difficult, the trainee may become overwhelmed and give up [22].”
Background
Cognitive activity mediates the association between social activity and cognitive performance: A longitudinal study.
Brown, C. L., Robitaille, A., Zelinski, E. M., Dixon, R. A., Hofer, S. M., & Piccinin, A. M. (2016) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000134 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Using cognitive psychology research to inform professional visual search operations
Biggs, A. T., Kramer, M. R., & Mitroff, S. R. (2018) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.04.001 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Cognitive and emotional outcomes after prolonged education: a quasi-experiment on 320 182 Swedish boys
Lager, A., Seblova, D., Falkstedt, D., & Lövdén, M. (2016) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyw093 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citation
Transfer Effects to a Multimodal Dual-Task after Working Memory Training and Associated Neural Correlates in Older Adults – A Pilot Study
Heinzel, S., Rimpel, J., Stelzel, C., & Rapp, M. A. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00085 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The effect of baseline performance and age on cognitive training improvements in older adults: a qualitative review
Shaw, J. S., & Hosseini, S. M. H. (2021) · The Journal of Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.14283/jpad.2020.55 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating
Linares, R., Borella, E., Lechuga, M. T., Carretti, B., & Pelegrina, S. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211321 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Pattern of Near Transfer Effects Following Working Memory Training With a Dual <i>N</i>-Back Task
Soveri, A., Karlsson, E. P. A., Waris, O., Grönholm-Nyman, P., & Laine, M. (2017) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000370 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Predicting developmental language disorders using artificial intelligence and a speech data analysis tool
Beccaluva, E. A., Catania, F., Arosio, F., & Garzotto, F. (2024) · Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/07370024.2023.2242837 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Visuospatial working memory training facilitates visually-aided explicit sequence learning
Chan, J. S. Y., Wu, Q., Liang, D., & Yan, J. H. (2015) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.09.008 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Neural correlates of working memory training: An fMRI meta-analysis
Zhang, Y., Fu, J., & Zhao, X. (2024) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120885 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Primary outcome from the augmenting cognitive training in older adults study (ACT): A tDCS and cognitive training randomized clinical trial
Hausman, H. K., Alexander, G. E., Cohen, R., Marsiske, M., DeKosky, S. T., Hishaw, G. A., O'Shea, A., Kraft, J. N., Dai, Y., Wu, S., et al. (2023) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2023.05.021 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Working memory training improves children’s syntactic ability but not vice versa: A randomized control trial
Roque-Gutierrez, E., & Ibbotson, P. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105593 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Examining Working Memory Training for Healthy Adults—A Second-Order Meta-Analysis
Syed, M., Lum, J. A. G., Byrne, L. K., & Skvarc, D. (2024) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence12110114 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The consistent mismatch between the task demands and the trainee’s ability is hypothesized to lead to improvements in WM (Lövd é n et al. 2010).”

Optimally Distinct? Understanding the motivation and ability of organizations to pursue optimal distinctiveness (or not)
Durand, R., & Haans, R. F. J. (2022) · Organization Theory · doi:10.1177/26317877221079341 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Just Another Face in the Crowd? Distinctiveness Seeking in Sweden and Britain
Eriksson, E. L., Becker, M., & Vignoles, V. L. (2010) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-010-0030-5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
To Stand Out or Blend In? The Role of Expert Type in the Funding Decisions of Innovation Projects
Li, L. (2020) · Academy of Management Proceedings · doi:10.5465/ambpp.2020.13277abstract
Neuroplasticity and Cognitive Training in Schizophrenia
Kar, S. K., & Singh, A. K. (2019) · Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s40473-019-00178-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Harnessing neuroplasticity
Vinogradov, S. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115607 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Authors: Lövdén, M., Bäckman, L., Lindenberger, U., Schaefer, S., & Schmiedek, F.
Affiliations: Lund University (SE)
Max Planck Society (DE)
ORCID: Lövdén, Martin
Bäckman, Lars
Lindenberger, Ulman
Schaefer, Sabine
Schmiedek, Florian
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2010
Volume: 136
Issue: 4
Pages: 659-676
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/a0020080
OpenAlex: W1984090792
Cited by: 731
References: 202
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 59 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 34
FWCI: 45.77
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
hdl.handle.net
Licence: other-oa
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: German Federal Ministry for Education and Research
Max Planck Society
Swedish Research Council (DNR 421-2005-2018)
Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research
Swedish Brain Power
Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Keywords: cognitive development, behavioral flexibility, processing efficiency, mental representation, frontal lobe activation, normal aging, cognitive training, theoretical framework
MeSH terms: Adult, Aged, Aging, Brain, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Humans, Memory, Middle Aged, Neuronal Plasticity

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A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity

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