Magnitude of teacher expectancy effects on pupil IQ as a function of the credibility of expectancy induction: A synthesis of findings from 18 experiments.

Raudenbush, Stephen W.

doi:10.1037/0022-0663.76.1.85

Cited by 302Education, Achievement, and GiftednessSchool Choice and PerformanceCognitive Abilities and Testing

Magnitude of teacher expectancy effects on pupil IQ as a function of the credibility of expectancy induction: A synthesis of findings from 18 experiments.

Raudenbush, Stephen W.·1984·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.76.1.85

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“experiments in which IQ or a similar measure of ability was the outcome, Raudenbush (1984) showed very clearly that studies finding evidence of the effect were primarily those where teachers had no opportunity to form an independent impression of students before the”
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A proposed theoretical model to explain relative age effects in sport
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“A meta-analysis (Raudenbush, 1984) corroborates Pygmalion effects in teacher pupil relationships, but notes that the strength of Pygmalion effects is negatively associated with the length of time teachers have known the students prior to the expectancy intervention. Thus, early expectations emerge as the strongest. Py…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Empirical bayes meta-analysis.
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“Figure 1 gives an example of an apparently asymmetric funnel plot from a meta-analysis of the effect of teacher expectancy on the IQ of pupils [4].”
BackgroundMethod
Test scores, subjective assessment, and stereotyping of ethnic minorities
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“The expectancy effect, or “living down to expectations,” has appeared frequently in the education literature ðe.g., Weinstein 2002Þ, although Rosenthal and Jacobson’s early ð1968Þ study on this subject has been strongly criticized ðsee Raudenbush 1984; and Snow 1995Þ.”
Background
Helping Seventh Graders Be Safe and Successful: A Statewide Study of the Impact of Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling Programs
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Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., Lubienski, S., Ganley, C., & Copur-Gencturk, Y. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035073 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
“Although some reviews revealed smaller effects in general (r .10–.20; Jussim & Harber, 2005), and when using observational/naturalistic data in particular (Jussim, Eccles, & Madon, 1996), larger effects have been found for children in first and second grades (Raudenbush, 1984).”
Background
A multivariate mixed linear model for meta-analysis.
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“Raudenbush (1984) identified 18 such studies.”
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“A few other moderators were chosen based on previous research, primarily a qualitative literature review on diversity-related interventions and other diversityrelated and nondiversity-related meta-analyses (e.g., Engberg, 2004; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2000; Raudenbush, 1984), and consisted of the following: publication typ…”
BackgroundMethod
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“As illustrated by the studies included in Raudenbush’s (1984) meta-analysis of Pygmalion experiments, independent replications of published research articles have a long history in psychological research.”
Background
Ancient Pygmalion joins contemporary management: A meta-analysis of the result.
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“And in a meta-analytic review, Raudenbush (1984) found teacher expectancies to produce their greatest effects on children in the early grades, but also noted an effect in seventh grade.”
Background
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“Although a multilevel approach to meta-analysis was first introduced as early as 1984 (Raudenbush, 1984; also see Goldstein, Yang, Omar, Turner & Thompson, 2000), there have been very few applications of this approach in actual practice, and almost none that have used a three-level approach rather than a two-level app…”
Method
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“and why expectancy effects occur, tested by Raudenbush (1984a) using “meta-analysis,””
BackgroundSelf-citation
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“We use two published meta-analysis examples (Mapstone et al., 2003; Raudenbush, 1984) to illustrate some of the methods and techniques that are discussed herein.”
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“The analysis is based on a dataset from Raudenbush on teacher expectancy, a paradigm where the influence of teacher expectancy on intelligence test performance is measured [44].”
Method
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“For example, Raudenbush (1984) showed that when teachers knew their students for at least 2 weeks, induced erroneous expectations had little influence.”
Influential
Do self-fulfilling prophecies accumulate, dissipate, or remain stable over time?
Smith, A. E., Jussim, L. J., & Eccles, J. S. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.3.548 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Relation between teachers' early expectations and students' later perceived competence in physical education classes: Autonomy-supportive climate as a moderator.
Trouilloud, D. O., Sarrazin, P. G., Bressoux, P., & Bois, J. E. (2006) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.75 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“…to between-classroom ability grouping classes (Eder, 1981; Smith, Jussim, & Eccles, 1998), when they are negotiating transitions (e.g., start of 7 kindergarten or middle school) (Raudenbush, 1984), and in classrooms with large number of students and few resources (Finn, 1972; Jussim et al., 1998).”
Background
Habilitation à diriger des recherches
(2019) · Revue Mabillon · doi:10.1484/j.rm.5.120430 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Pre-service elementary school teachers' expectations about student performance: How their beliefs are affected by their mathematics anxiety and student's gender
Mizala, A., Martínez, F., & Martínez, S. (2015) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2015.04.006 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“While two meta-analysis (Raudenbush, 1984; Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978) showed that the size of the average expectancy effect is rather small (binomial effect size of 0.1e0.”
Method
Précis of Social Perception and Social Reality: Why accuracy dominates bias and self-fulfilling prophecy
Jussim, L. J. (2015) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1500062x · Cited by 298 · see citing works
The Essential Supports for School Improvement
Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E. M., Bryk, A. S., Easton, J. Q., & Luppescu, S. (2006) · Cited by 128 · see citing works
On the Multilevel Nature of Meta-Analysis: A Tutorial, Comparison of Software Programs, and Discussion of Analytic Choices
Pastor, D. A., & Lazowski, R. A. (2017) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2017.1365684 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
The Self-Fulfillment of the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Wineburg, S. (1987) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x016009028 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“In a meta-analysis based on 18 studies, Raudenbush (1984) found a small mean effect size in IQexpectation studies (Δ = !ll), a finding that either achieved or failed to achieve statistical significance depending on the test employed.”
Method
Are Summer‐born Children Disadvantaged? The Birthdate Effect in Education
Bell, J. F., & Daniels, S. (1990) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/0305498900160106 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Models for estimating the number of unpublished studies.
Gleser, L., & Olkin, I. (1996) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(19961215)15:23 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Teachers' Effect on Students' Creative Self-Beliefs Is Moderated by Students' Gender
Karwowski, M., Gralewski, J., & Szumski, G. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.10.001 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Exploring the Pygmalion effect: The role of teacher expectations, academic self-concept, and class context in students’ math achievement
Szumski, G., & Karwowski, M. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101787 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“20): stronger than the effect observed in previous Pygmalion investigations (Raudenbush, 1984; Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978), yet similar when it comes to math achievement (Jussim & Eccles, 1992; Jussim, 1989).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
School Effectiveness Research: criticisms and recommendations
Coe, R., & Fitz‐Gibbon, C. T. (1998) · Oxford Review of Education · doi:10.1080/0305498980240401 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF THE GALATEA EFFECT: A FIELD EXPERIMENT AND CONSTRUCTIVE REPLICATION.
McNatt, D. B., & Judge, T. A. (2004) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/20159601 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Relatedly, Pygmalion studies have shown that expectation effects diminish or disappear when prior relationships exist between individuals and their instructors (Raudenbush, 1984).”
Background
The Pygmalion Effect and its Mediating Mechanisms
Rosenthal, R. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012064455-1/50005-1 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Implanting pygmalion leadership style through workshop training
Eden, D., Geller, D., Gewirtz, A. H., Gordon-Terner, R., Inbar, I., Liberman, M., Pass, Y., Salomon-Segev, I., & Shalit, M. (2000) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(00)00042-4 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Problems with the pygmalion effect and some proposed solutions
White, S. S., & Locke, E. A. (2000) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(00)00046-1 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Cómo realizar una revisión sistemática y un meta-análisis*
Sánchez‐Meca, J. (2010) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Beleaguered Pygmalion: A History of the Controversy Over Claims that Teacher Expectancy Raises Intelligence
Spitz, H. H. (1999) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(99)00026-4 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“Raudenbush (1984) had reported BESDs for 0, 1, 2, and >2 weeks of prior pupil± teacher contact.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Gender and science achievement: A reanalysis of studies from two meta‐analyses
Becker, B. J. (1989) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.3660260206 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Explaining the Negative Impact of the Transition from Middle to High School on Student Performance in Mathematics and Science
Rice, J. K. (2001) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00131610121969352 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“A focus on academic excellence is a common factor defining effective schools (Edmonds, 1979; Good & Brophy, 1986; Purkey & Smith, 1983), and research has shown that teachers’ expectations affect student learning (Raudenbush, 1984).”
Background
Intervening in teachers' expectations: A random effects meta-analytic approach to examining the effectiveness of an intervention
Rubie-Davies, C. M., & Rosenthal, R. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.07.014 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Evaluation of Direct Oral Anticoagulant Reversal Agents in Intracranial Hemorrhage
Chaudhary, R., Singh, A., Chaudhary, R., Bashline, M. J., Houghton, D. E., Rabinstein, A. A., Adamski, J., Arndt, R., Ou, N. N., Rudis, M. I., et al. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.40145 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Multiple contrasts and ordered Bonferroni procedures.
Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1984) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0663.76.6.1028 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
EMPLOYEE REACTIONS TO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: A REVIEW AND RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS
Bobko, P., & COELLA, A. (1994) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1994.tb02407.x · Cited by 88 · see citing works
A Framework for Motivating Teacher-Student Relationships
Robinson, C. D. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-022-09706-0 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Perhaps logically, teachers’ beliefs about students become more difficult to modify when there is an existing teacher-student connection (Raudenbush, 1984).”
Background
Big School, Small School: (Re)Testing Assumptions about High School Size, School Engagement and Mathematics Achievement
Weiss, C. C., Carolan, B. V., & Baker-Smith, E. C. (2009) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9402-3 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Social Reality and Social Problems: The Role of Expectancies
Jussim, L. (1990) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb01921.x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
"Pygmalion" Effects: Existence, Magnitude, and Social Importance
Rosenthal, R. (1987) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x016009037 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Improving the error rates of the Begg and Mazumdar test for publication bias in fixed effects meta-analysis
Gjerdevik, M., & Heuch, I. (2014) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/1471-2288-14-109 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Example 2 The second example [23,24] is a review of randomized experiments on the effects of teacher expectancy on pupil IQ.”
BackgroundMethod
School Shootings as Organizational Deviance
Fox, C., & Harding, D. J. (2005) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/003804070507800104 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Unraveling the Complexity of the Increase in College Grades From the Mid-1980s to the Mid-1990s
Kuh, G. D., & Hu, S. (1999) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.2307/1164237 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Classroom Assessment and Educational Measurement
Brookhart, S. M., & McMillan, J. H. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429507533 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Two Worlds of Private Tutoring: The Prevalence and Causes of After-School Mathematics Tutoring in Korea and the United States
Lee, J. (2007) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146810710900507 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“…educational aspiration or expectation has been studied mostly in school settings, and the effect of teacher expectancy and peer culture effect on academic achievement has been well demonstrated (Ferguson, 1998; Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Lee & Smith, 1999; Raudenbush, 1984; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968).”
Background
Multilevel Analysis in the Study of Crime and Justice
Johnson, B. D. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77650-7_30 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Wright et al. 2008; Taylor et al. 2002) and meta-analyses that involve multiple effect sizes nested within the same study or dataset (e.g. Raudenbush 1984; Goldstein et al. 2000).”
Background
A Mixed-Method Study of Teachers' Attitudes About Teaching in Urban and Low-Income Schools
Halvorsen, A., Lee, V. E., & Andrade, F. (2008) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/0042085908318696 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Since the 1968 publication of Rosenthal and Jacobson’s seminal study, Pygmalion in the Classroom, many researchers have confirmed their findings about the “self-fulfilling prophesy” of teachers’ expectations on student progress (e.g., Brophy, 1983; Cooper & Tom, 1984; Raudenbush, 1984).”
Background
Successive teacher expectation effects across the early school years
Rubie-Davies, C. M., Weinstein, R. S., Huang, F. L., Gregory, A., Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (2014) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2014.03.006 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Multilevel Modeling and Practice-Based Research
Dickinson, L. M. (2005) · The Annals of Family Medicine · doi:10.1370/afm.340 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
How Hard Is Hard Science, How Soft Is Soft Science?
Hedges, L. V. (1987) · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Les connaissances actuelles sur l'effet Pygmalion : processus, poids et modulateurs
Trouilloud, D. O., & Sarrazin, P. G. (2003) · HAL · doi:10.3406/rfp.2003.2988 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Issues in Meta-Analysis
Hedges, L. V. (1986) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.2307/1167228 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The Limits of Expectations: A Case for Case Knowledge About Teacher Expectancy Effects
Goldenberg, C. N. (1992) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312029003517 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
A decade of teacher expectations research 2008–2018: Historical foundations, new developments, and future pathways
Johnston, O., Wildy, H., & Shand, J. (2019) · Australian Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/0004944118824420 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Enhancing a brief writing intervention to combat stereotype threat among middle-school students.
Bowen, N. K., Wegmann, K. M., & Webber, K. C. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031177 · Cited by 60 · see citing works

Authors: Raudenbush, S. W.
Affiliations: Harvard University (US)
Corresponding author: Raudenbush, Stephen W.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1984-02
Volume: 76
Issue: 1
Pages: 85-97
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.76.1.85
OpenAlex: W1981707533
Cited by: 302
References: 36
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 15
FWCI: 8.82
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: credibility, teacher expectations, self-fulfilling prophecy

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Magnitude of teacher expectancy effects on pupil IQ as a function of the credibility of expectancy induction: A synthesis of findings from 18 experiments.

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