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When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.
Open accessAbstract
Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge.
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“Second, the worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Instructional formats that are beneficial for novice learners lose their effectiveness and can even have negative consequences for more knowledgeable learners (i.e., expertise reversal effect; Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003;Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001;Leppink, Broers, Imbos, Van der Vleuten, & Berger, 2012a, 2012b, 2013b).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Further, when referring to one very specific instructional feature or cognitive process to measure extraneous cognitive load or germane cognitive load, a conceptual problem may arise, because the expertise reversal effect illustrates that a particular instructional feature may be associated with germane cognitive load for one learner and with extraneous cognitive load for another learner (Kalyuga”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga et al., 2001
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“; see Kalyuga et al. 2001).”
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“In line with this idea, providing people with more worked examples (relative to problem-solving practice) is often more effective for learning than relying more heavily on problem-solving practice and using fewer worked examples (Cooper & Sweller, 1987; Ward & Sweller, 1990; Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999; Kalyuga et al., 2…”
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“However, studying examples can lose its effectiveness or may even hamper learning when students have some prior knowledge of the problem (i.e., the expertise reversal effect; e.g., Kalyuga et al., 2001, 2003).”
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Rat, A., Ricci, L., Guillemin, F., Ricatte, C., Pongy, M., Vieux, R., Spitz, É., & Muller, L. (2018) · JMIR Medical Education · doi:10.2196/mededu.9551 · Cited by 10
“BRADNET was developed according to the cognitive load theory [28,30] and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, which are based on 3 assumptions: the dual channel assumption (people possess separate processing systems for visual and verbal representations), the limited capacity assumption (the amount of processi…”
BackgroundMethodLee, J., & Spector, J. M. (2011) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9189-y · Cited by 10
Adaptive Instruction to Learner Expertise with Bimodal Process-oriented Worked-out Examples
Si, J., Kim, D., & Na, C. (2014) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 10
Do Erroneous Examples Improve Learning in Addition to Problem Solving and Worked Examples?
Chen, X., Mitrović, A., & Mathews, M. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39583-8_2 · Cited by 10
“The benefits of WEs were demonstrated in many studies for novices, but problem solving was found to be superior to WEs for more advanced students [5].”
BackgroundA cognitive schema approach to diagnose intuitiveness
Fischer, S., Itoh, M., & Inagaki, T. (2009) · International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (AutomotiveUI) · doi:10.1145/1620509.1620516 · Cited by 9
“Such problems can only be solved if appropriate schemas are induced during the study phase2 [23].”
BackgroundFree, open, online, mathematics help forums: the good, the bad, and the ugly
van de Sande, C. (2010) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 9
Working Memory Capacity and Self‐Explanation Strategy Use Provide Additive Problem‐Solving Benefits
Redifer, J. L., Therriault, D. J., Lee, C. S., & Schroeder, A. N. (2016) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3219 · Cited by 9
Chen, X., Mitrović, A., & Mathews, M. (2019) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-019-00179-x · Cited by 9
“We used PS, WEs and ErrExs, as these types of learning activities have been shown to be effective learning strategies across a broad range of domains (Kalyuga et al. 2001; van Gog 2011; McLaren and Isotani 2011; Chen et al. 2016a; Durkin and Rittle-Johnson 2012; Stark et al. 2011).”
Guided Practice for Complex, Multistep Procedures in Algebra: Scaffolding Through Worked Solutions
Riccomini, P. J., & Morano, S. (2019) · Teaching Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0040059919848737 · Cited by 9
Managing Cognitive Load in the Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities
DaCosta, B., & Seok, S. (2010) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch002 · Cited by 10
Designing introductory programming courses : the role of cognitive load
Mason, R. (2012) · Cross Connect (Southern Cross University) · Cited by 9
Schuessler, K., Fischer, V., Walpuski, M., & Leutner, D. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14101044 · Cited by 10
Ruitenburg, S. K., Ackermans, K., Kirschner, P. A., Jarodzka, H., & Camp, G. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.102027 · Cited by 13
Ngu, B. H., Chen, O., Phan, H. P., Usop, H. H., & Anding, P. N. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15040504 · Cited by 10
“For example, in an earlier study, Kalyuga et al. (2001) found that the advantage of the worked example (WE) approach over the problem-solving (PS) approach diminished as learners became more knowledgeable in the subject matter.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-09
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 579-588
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2007377366
- Cited by
- 548
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 10.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.unsw.edu.au
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Keywords
- worked examples, problem solving, student knowledge, instructional guidance, mental workload, prior experience, skill acquisition, apprenticeship
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