The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 45 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.
Open accessAbstract
Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge.
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“Second, the worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Instructional formats that are beneficial for novice learners lose their effectiveness and can even have negative consequences for more knowledgeable learners (i.e., expertise reversal effect; Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003;Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001;Leppink, Broers, Imbos, Van der Vleuten, & Berger, 2012a, 2012b, 2013b).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Further, when referring to one very specific instructional feature or cognitive process to measure extraneous cognitive load or germane cognitive load, a conceptual problem may arise, because the expertise reversal effect illustrates that a particular instructional feature may be associated with germane cognitive load for one learner and with extraneous cognitive load for another learner (Kalyuga”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga et al., 2001
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“Moreover, worked-out examples and completion problems have shown to be superior to conventional problems, not only in terms of test performance but also in terms of extraneous load (Paas, 1992; Paas & van Merriënboer, 1994b; Sweller, 1988; Van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, Hendriks, & Schmidt, 2002; van Merriënboer,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationCognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0 · Cited by 2,206
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Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9128-5 · Cited by 2,020
“For example, using novices, Kalyuga et al. (2001) obtained a conventional worked example effect with worked examples proving superior to solving the equivalent problems.”
MethodSelf-citationKalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_4 · Cited by 1,927
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“Kalyuga et al. (2001b) demonstrated that the superiority of worked examples in programming logic controllers over problem-solving practice (worked example effect; e.g., Cooper and Sweller 1987; Sweller 1988) disappeared as trainees acquired more experience in the task domain.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCognitive load theory and educational technology
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Self-citationDirect Measurement of Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning
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“Among the instructional strategies that have been found to reduce extraneous cognitive load and optimize germane cognitive load are worked examples ( Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001 ); goal-free activities (Sweller, 1999); strategies of imagining (Cooper, Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 2001); and acti…”
BackgroundLearning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding.
Dedre Gentner, C., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.393 · Cited by 904
“As we noted earlier, the relation between learning and transfer is modulated by the learner’s degree of expertise—novice learners and more expert learners may differentially benefit from the same training ( Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001 ).”
BackgroundKoedinger, K. R., Corbett, A. T., & Perfetti, C. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2012.01245.x · Cited by 772
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“Sometimes, however, they are taken after a series of tasks (e.g., Kalyuga et al. 2001), in which case they presumably represent the overall cognitive load.”
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“We do not know of such a direct comparison, though it seems unlikely to hold in general given results like those of Trafton and Reiser’s (1993) interleaving effect, expertise reversal effect (Kalyuga et al. 2001), and generation effects (Slamecka and Graf 1978).”
ResultA Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory
Schnotz, W., & Kürschner, C. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9053-4 · Cited by 755
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“In a recent study, Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, and Sweller (2001) analyzed mechanical trade apprentices’ learning about relay circuits and their programming in different stages of skill ac quisition.”
BackgroundEffects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load
Leppink, J., Paas, F., van Gog, T., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.12.001 · Cited by 520
Evolution of human cognitive architecture
Sweller, J. (2003) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)01015-6 · Cited by 511
Self-citationKapur, M. (2016) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2016.1155457 · Cited by 523
Toward an Instructionally Oriented Theory of Example‐Based Learning
Renkl, A. (2014) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12086 · Cited by 509
Instructional Efficiency: Revisiting the Original Construct in Educational Research
van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701756248 · Cited by 473
Sweller, J. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021808.72598.4d · Cited by 470
Self-citationClassification of learning outcomes: evidence from the computer games literature
O’Neil, H. F., Wainess, R., & Baker, E. L. (2005) · The Curriculum Journal · doi:10.1080/09585170500384529 · Cited by 472
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Self-citationExample-Based Learning: Integrating Cognitive and Social-Cognitive Research Perspectives
van Gog, T., & Rummel, N. (2010) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9134-7 · Cited by 426
“2001; Kalyuga and Sweller 2004; Mwangi and Sweller 1998; Sweller and Cooper 1985), at least for low ability or low prior knowledge learners (Cooper and Sweller 1987; Kalyuga et al. 2001).”
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“One approach to this is to use worked examples, which have an established basis in cognitive load theory for allowing students develop their understanding on topics of difficulty; especially novice learners in a discipline (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
Methodvan Merriënboer, J. J. G., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1250 · Cited by 320
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van Gog, T., Kester, L., & Paas, F. (2011) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.10.004 · Cited by 283
“…during which students acquire prior knowledge (i.e., for learners with high prior knowledge, problem-solving is known to become equally if not more effective than studying worked examples or example-problem pairs; Kalyuga et al., 2001; for a review, see Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003).”
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Renkl, A., Atkinson, R. K., & Große, C. S. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021815.74806.f6 · Cited by 272
“Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, and Sweller (2001) analyzed mechanical trade apprentices’ learning about relay circuits and their programming in different stages of skill acquisition.”
BackgroundDomain-Specific Knowledge and Why Teaching Generic Skills Does Not Work
Tricot, A., & Sweller, J. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9243-1 · Cited by 273
Self-citationRapid dynamic assessment of expertise to improve the efficiency of adaptive e-learning
Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504800 · Cited by 265
“This definition was different from that first suggested by Paas and van Merriënboer (1993) and used in our previous studies (e.g., Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
ResultSelf-citationThe Worked-Out Examples Principle in Multimedia Learning
Renkl, A. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.016 · Cited by 231
Putting Students on the Path to Learning: The Case for Fully Guided Instruction.
Clark, R. E., Kirschner, P. A., & Sweller, J. (2012) · DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) · Cited by 219
Self-citationSweller, J. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09817-2 · Cited by 220
“In accordance with the expertise reversal effect, a reverse worked example effect with problem solving being superior to studying worked examples is obtained for low element interactivity information (Chen et al., 2015, 2016a, b, 2017; Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
Self-citationMeasuring Knowledge to Optimize Cognitive Load Factors During Instruction.
Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2004) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.558 · Cited by 219
Self-citationCognitive load theory and individual differences
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Self-citationThe worked-example effect: Not an artefact of lousy control conditions
Schwonke, R., Renkl, A., Krieg, C., Wittwer, J., Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., & Salden, R. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.011 · Cited by 215
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“…amount of research that has assessed cognitive load with a single delayed measure; that is, cognitive load was measured only once after the whole learning/problem solving phase (e.g., Kalyuga et al. 2001; Ku¨hl et al. 2011; Leutner et al. 2009; Schwamborn et al. 2011; Seufert and Bru¨nken 2006).”
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“That it is more efficient as well is shown by the fact that students need to invest less time and mental effort to reach this better transfer performance (e.g., Kalyuga et al. 2001; Paas and Van Merrienboer 1994b).”
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“For example, Kalyuga et al. (2001) found that studying”
BackgroundInfluentialThe worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000018 · Cited by 167
“Of course, the explanation of the worked example effect, that the guidance provided to assist learners in solving problems reduces working memory load thus facilitating learning is equally inapplicable to the generation effect or, indeed, the reverse worked example effect (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationFive Common but Questionable Principles of Multimedia Learning
Clark, R. E., & Feldon, D. F. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.007 · Cited by 162
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Exploring Multidimensional Approaches to the Efficiency of Instructional Conditions
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“However, this beneficial effect of support among novice learners disappears and eventually reverses when applied to more advanced learners.(35,36) When we ask learners to do an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) with possible diagnoses in mind and to explicitly engage in forward (i.”
BackgroundWord Problem-Solving Instruction in Inclusive Third-Grade Mathematics Classrooms
Griffin, C. C., & Jitendra, A. K. (2008) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.3200/joer.102.3.187-202 · Cited by 123
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An Open Repository and analysis tools for fine-grained, longitudinal learner data.
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Problem-solving or Explicit Instruction: Which Should Go First When Element Interactivity Is High?
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Self-citationAtkinson, R. K., & Renkl, A. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9055-2 · Cited by 113
“Research conducted over the past 20 years has consistently documented that worked examples not only represent a highly-valued source of instruction by learners (e.g., LeFevre and Dixon 1986; Pirolli and Anderson 1985; Recker and Pirolli 1995) but an effective one as well (for an overview see Atkinson et al. 2000), par…”
BackgroundAn integrated model of multimedia effects on learning.
Hede, A. (2002) · USC Research Bank (University of the Sunshine Coast) · Cited by 98
Prior Knowledge Principle in Multimedia Learning
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Self-citationMatlen, B. J., & Klahr, D. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9248-z · Cited by 96
“problems (Kalyuga et al. 2001; Kalyuga and Sweller 2004).”
BackgroundTwelve tips for medical curriculum design from a cognitive load theory perspective
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“From the robust finding that the need for instructional support on a type of learning task of a given complexity decreases as learners advance (Kalyuga et al. 2001, 2003), it follows that one should start with relatively high support and gradually fade that support for that type of learning task…”
BackgroundMethodA Test of the Testing Effect: Acquiring Problem‐Solving Skills From Worked Examples
van Gog, T., & Kester, L. (2012) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12002 · Cited by 107
Smits, M. H. S. B., Boon, J., Sluijsmans, D. M. A., & van Gog, T. (2008) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820701365952 · Cited by 108
“Consequently, at higher levels of prior knowledge students’ learning starts to benefit more from minimally guided or unguided instruction such as problem solving than from guided instruction such as worked examples (Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001; Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 2001).”
BackgroundToward a Learning Science for Complex Crowdsourcing Tasks
Doroudi, S., Kamar, E. S., Brunskill, E., & Horvitz, E. (2016) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2858036.2858268 · Cited by 91
“While the expertise reversal effect claims that for more advanced students the opposite is true—solving problems is more effective than reviewing examples [12]— more recent work demonstrated that in a less-structured domain, the worked example effect holds for both novices and advanced students [21].”
ResultInteractions Among the Imagination, Expertise Reversal, and Element Interactivity Effects.
Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.11.4.266 · Cited by 99
Self-citationWang, D., Han, H. D., Zhan, Z., Xu, J. B., Liu, Q., & Ren, G. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.003 · Cited by 110
More confusion and frustration, better learning: The impact of erroneous examples
Richey, J. E., Andres-Bray, J. M. L., Mogessie, M., Scruggs, R., Andres, J. M. A. L., Star, J. R., Baker, R. S., & McLaren, B. M. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.05.012 · Cited by 94
“Practice problems were included based on worked-examples literature that has shown that students benefit from tackling practice problems after studying worked examples (Kalyuga et al., 2001; Renkl & Atkinson, 2003; McLaren et al., 2008).”
MethodNievelstein, F., van Gog, T., DIJCK, G. V., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2012) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004 · Cited by 102
“Because processing redundant worked-out steps induces ineffective working memory load and also prevents students from practicing with problem solving by themselves from which more advanced students’ learning might still benefit, learning is hampered for advanced students by example study relative to problem solving (K…”
Learning from video modeling examples: does gender matter?
Hoogerheide, V., Loyens, S. M. M., & van Gog, T. (2015) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-015-9360-y · Cited by 95
“1 Note that for students who have some prior knowledge of solving probability calculation problems, examples would lose their effectiveness or may even start to hamper learning compared to practice problem solving (Kalyuga et al. 2001; this is an example of the expertise-reversal effect; see Kalyuga et al. 2003; Kalyu…”
BackgroundReanalyzing the expertise reversal effect
Schnotz, W. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9104-y · Cited by 93
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Kant, J. M., Scheiter, K., & Oschatz, K. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.04.005 · Cited by 94
Paas, F., Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Wouters, P. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1349 · Cited by 84
Teaching the Teacher: Tutoring SimStudent Leads to More Effective Cognitive Tutor Authoring
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“The results from the Simulation Study also provide a theoretical account for the benefit of learning by guided-problem solving over learning from examples (Atkinson et al. 2003; Kalyuga et al. 2001).”
ResultWorked example effects in individual and group work settings
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443411003659960 · Cited by 103
“Problem-solving can be effective when learners gain sufficient expertise (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRelations between the worked example and generation effects on immediate and delayed tests
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.06.007 · Cited by 82
Self-citationvan Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kester, L. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.006 · Cited by 83
Designing for fake news literacy training: A problem-based undergraduate online-course
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Leahy, W., Hanham, J., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9296-4 · Cited by 77
Self-citationFeng, M., Heffernan, N. T., & Koedinger, K. R. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11774303_4 · Cited by 77
Learning from Worked-Out Examples and Problem Solving
Renkl, A., & Atkinson, R. K. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.007 · Cited by 83
Sweller, J. (2007) · UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch31 · Cited by 72
“As an instance, studying worked examples is better than solving the equivalent problems for novices, but with increased expertise solving problems becomes better than studying examples (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe effects of digital learning material on students’ mathematics learning in vocational education
Zwart, D. P., Luit, J. E. H. V., Noroozi, O., & Goei, S. L. (2017) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2017.1313581 · Cited by 83
Metadata
- Authors
- Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-09
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 579-588
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2007377366
- Cited by
- 548
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 10.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.unsw.edu.au
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Keywords
- worked examples, problem solving, student knowledge, instructional guidance, mental workload, prior experience, skill acquisition, apprenticeship
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