The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 45 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.
Open accessAbstract
Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge.
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“Second, the worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Instructional formats that are beneficial for novice learners lose their effectiveness and can even have negative consequences for more knowledgeable learners (i.e., expertise reversal effect; Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003;Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001;Leppink, Broers, Imbos, Van der Vleuten, & Berger, 2012a, 2012b, 2013b).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Further, when referring to one very specific instructional feature or cognitive process to measure extraneous cognitive load or germane cognitive load, a conceptual problem may arise, because the expertise reversal effect illustrates that a particular instructional feature may be associated with germane cognitive load for one learner and with extraneous cognitive load for another learner (Kalyuga”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga et al., 2001
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“This refers to the finding that direct instructions (e.g. worked examples) become less effective, while problem solving activities become more effective, as learners become more experienced in a domain (Ayres, Chandler, Kalyuga, & Sweller, 2003; Chandler, Kalyuga, Sweller, & Tuovinen, 2001).”
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Self-citationJung, J., Kim, D., & Na, C. (2016) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 8
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“They felt both of these were too challenging—in line with the findings of Kalyuga et al. (2001).”
ResultInfluentialComparison of different approaches on example-based learning for novice and proficient learners
Huang, Y., Lin, K.-C., Xiang, Y., & Hung, J. C.-S. (2015) · Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences · doi:10.1186/s13673-015-0048-8 · Cited by 8
“Discussion On the basis of previous research results [12, 13, 16, 20], we propose that learning from examples and problems simultaneously might be more effective and efficient than learning from example-problem pairs in the initial learning phase, and note that the strategy does not lose its effectiveness for proficie…”
Background'Connectivism' - a new paradigm for the mathematics anxiety challenge?
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“This is in line with cognitive load theory design principles, which propose that students should perform problemsolving steps (including evaluating their work) if they are likely to do so efficiently (Kalyuga et al. 2001).”
BackgroundMethodMoussa‐Inaty, J., Causapin, M., & Groombridge, T. (2018) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2018.1516629 · Cited by 9
“…demonstrated that certain instructional techniques are effective for novice learners but can have negative effects on expert learners – an effect known as the expertise reversal effect (see Kalyuga et al. 2001; Yeung, Jin, and Sweller 1998; Pollock, Chandler, and Sweller 2002; Cooper et al. 2001).”
BackgroundRichey, J. E., McLaren, B. M., Andres-Bray, J. M. L., Mogessie, M., Scruggs, R., Baker, R. S., & Star, J. R. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23204-7_37 · Cited by 8
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“On one hand, worked examples tend to have a lower mental load impact compared to problems [56].”
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“However, with the increase in expertise, the element interactivity of the information decreases (as an outcome of learning); hence the advantage of worked examples reduces and eventually reverses [94,95].”
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“Several researchers indicated that subjective task difficulty is a function of both inherent task characteristics and learners’ prior knowledge about the task domain (Fisher & Ford, 1998; Gerjets & Scheiter, 2003; Kalyuga et al., 2001; Kalyuga et al., 2003; Paas, Touvinen, van Merriënboer, & Darabi, 2005; Pollock, Cha…”
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“…scales are commonly used to measure overall cognitive load (Brünken et al., 2012; Sweller et al., 2011; van Gog & Paas, 2008 ): the first measures invested mental effort (Paas, 1992), and the second measures perceived task difficulty (Ayres, 2006; Kalyuga et al., 2001 ; Marcus et al., 1996 ).”
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“Research highlights the importance of repeated cognitive load assessments throughout problem-solving activities, ideally after each task (Kalyuga et al., 2001; Krieglstein et al., 2024; Paas, 1992; Schmeck et al., 2015; Van Gog et al., 2012).”
Ganaiem, E., & Roll, I. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09750-7 · Cited by 3
“Research indicates that novice learners, in particular, benefit from using WE, while students with higher prior knowledge benefit less from the guidance provided by WE (Kalyuga et al., 2001; Kalyuga, 2009; Salden et al., 2010).”
Revitalizing Plenary Finance Lectures
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“have sufficient knowledge to learn from practice without much feedback or support [8].”
BackgroundAPPLYING COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY IN TEACHING TENSES FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS
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“Consequently, under particular conditions, problem solving is better for experts than worked examples (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialDoes Instruction-First or Problem-Solving-First Depend on Learners’ Prior Knowledge?
He, C.-W., Fiorella, L., & Lemons, P. P. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-09993-3 · Cited by 3
“Thus, it may be more productive for advanced learners who have sufficient experience in a domain to generate a problem solution on their own instead of studying a worked example (Kalyuga et al., 2001).”
Effects of Example-Problem Pairs on Students’ Mathematics Achievements: A Mixed-Method Study
Alreshidi, N. A. K. (2021) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v14n5p8 · Cited by 3
The impact of algebra worked example presentations on student learning
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Darabi, A., Nelson, D. W., & Mackal, M. C. (2008) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.2004.tb00318.x · Cited by 3
DaCosta_Boaventura_200805_PhD-3319235.pdf
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-09
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 579-588
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2007377366
- Cited by
- 548
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 10.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.unsw.edu.au
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Keywords
- worked examples, problem solving, student knowledge, instructional guidance, mental workload, prior experience, skill acquisition, apprenticeship
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