The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 45 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.
Open accessAbstract
Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Second, the worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Instructional formats that are beneficial for novice learners lose their effectiveness and can even have negative consequences for more knowledgeable learners (i.e., expertise reversal effect; Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003;Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001;Leppink, Broers, Imbos, Van der Vleuten, & Berger, 2012a, 2012b, 2013b).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Further, when referring to one very specific instructional feature or cognitive process to measure extraneous cognitive load or germane cognitive load, a conceptual problem may arise, because the expertise reversal effect illustrates that a particular instructional feature may be associated with germane cognitive load for one learner and with extraneous cognitive load for another learner (Kalyuga”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga et al., 2001
Citations
Cites
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048
Self-citationMayer, R. E. (2009) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511811678 · Cited by 7,800
Mayer, R. (2020) · doi:10.1017/9781316941355 · Cited by 7,777
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022193728205 · Cited by 6,023
Self-citationControlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902
Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices*
Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2 · Cited by 5,248
Handbook of perception and human performance
Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., & Thomas, J. P. (1986) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 4,033
Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design
Sweller, J. (1994) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/0959-4752(94)90003-5 · Cited by 3,801
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 · Cited by 2,894
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- 10.2307/1170661 · DOI
- Sweller, 1999, Instructional design.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–547 of 547
Cody, C. (2020) · NCSU Libraries Repository (North Carolina State University Libraries)
Cognitive Development: Mathematics Learning and Instruction
Thompson, C. A., & Booth, J. L. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.92146-9
الأعصر, س. ع. ا., & الباسط, م. س. ع. (2016) · Al-Mağallah Al-ʿilmiyyaẗ Li Kulliyyaẗ Al-Tarbiyyaẗ Al-Nawʿiyyaẗ - Ǧāmiʿaẗ Al-Munūfiyyaẗ · doi:10.21608/molag.2016.156938
الشيخ, أ. م. د. ه. م. (2021) · Al-Mağallah Al-Dawliyyaẗ Lil Taʿlim Al-Iliktirūnī · doi:10.21608/ijel.2021.159091
A Digital Wire for the Fostering Mathematical Medication Learning in Vocational Education
Zwart, D. P. (2021) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · doi:10.33540/713
Tolba, E. G. A. (2015) · The International Journal for Talent Development
Acquiring problem-solving skills in higher education
van Harsel, M. (2021) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · doi:10.33540/697
Multimedia Learning with Cognitive Tutors
Koedinger, K. R., & Aleven, V. A. W. M. M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.046
الليف, ن. م. ع. ا. أ. (2023) · Maǧallaẗ Al-H̲idmaẗ Al-Iǧtimāʿiyyaẗ · doi:10.21608/egjsw.2023.188043.1152
Two Perspectives on Physics Problem Solving and Their Relation to Adaptive Expertise
Kuo, E. (2023) · doi:10.1063/9780735425477_010 · Cited by 1
Probleem-oplossen in het hoger onderwijs door (zelfgestuurd) leren van voorbeelden en oefenproblemen
van Harsel, M., Hoogerheide, V., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & van Gog, T. (2022) · Tijdschrift voor Hoger Onderwijs · doi:10.59532/tvho.v40i2.13548
THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN MEDICAL RESEARCH
(2024) · International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science · doi:10.56726/irjmets48046
Wilschut, T., van der Velde, M., Sense, F., Arslan, B., Finn, B., & van Rijn, H. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/k5h2f
Lau, H.-Y. J. (2024) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-2171-9_16
Jennings, J. (2024) · Carleton University's Institutional Repository (MacOdrum Library, Carleton University) · doi:10.22215/etd/2024-15867
Salim, C. A. (2024) · Logos Verlag Berlin eBooks · doi:10.30819/5787
Problem Solution Error Detection as a Means of Learning Assessment in Fluid Mechanics
Shepard, T. G. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--47875
Akhüseyinoğlu, K., Klašnja‐Milićević, A., & Brusilovsky, P. L. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-72315-5_1
Özcan, Z. Ç., & Tahiroğlu, N. G. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5423005/v1
Integrating Research and Training to Enhance Organizational Readiness
Leppink, J., Ruiz, C. S., Peña, M. S. H., Santos, E. R., & Maestre, J. M. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-7740-2_3
Effectiveness of goal free problems for students with learning experience
Samo, D. D., Dominikus, W. S., Nenohai, J. M. H., Blegur, I. K. S., & Nada, Y. H. (2024) · Al-Fikru Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Sains · doi:10.55210/al-fikru.v5i2.1813
“Therefore, the worked example strategy is not recommended for students who already have learning experience (Kalyuga, 2001).”
Yıldız, E., & Sezer, R. (2025) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2025.2551600
“Studies have highlighted the effectiveness of the worked examples method for students with limited knowledge and experience in problem-solving (Kalyuga et al., 2001; Pachman et al., 2014).”
Funny girl: exploring the impact of teaching and learning humour in GCSE English language
Lord, R. (2025) · English in Education · doi:10.1080/04250494.2025.2589435
“Pupils valued having enough time to think and discuss ideas before writing or performing, supporting Sweller (1988) and Kalyuga, Chandler, and Sweller (2003) on the need for extended learning time for abstract skills.”
O’Neil, H. F., Baker, E. L., & Bewley, W. L. (2005) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-467-020251002
Wang, Y., & Chen, T. (2025) · International Conference on Intelligent Education and Computer Technology (IECT) · doi:10.1145/3764206.3764239
“Research by Kalyuga et al. found that novice learners in particular receive the most benefit from examples, in which it decreased cognitive load and improved performance compared to working on similar problems without examples [ 11 ] .”
(2008) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/book-978-1-60752-648-320251009
Nägel, L., Nemeth, L., & Lipowsky, F. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-025-01357-5
“This effect suggests that (modeling) examples can be more benefi-cial for learners with low prior knowledge, whereas practice problems only can be more beneficial for learners with high prior knowledge (e.g., Kalyuga et al. 2001; Reisslein et al. 2006).”
(2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-136-520251015
Enhancing Diagnostic Assessment of Expertise in Adaptive Learning Environments
Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/book-978-1-61735-634-620251014
Self-citationRapid Computer-Based Diagnostic Tests of Learners’ Knowledge
Kalyuga, S. (2008) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-942-220251009
Self-citationLearning in complex tasks: A comparison of cognitvie load and dual space theories.
Howe, A. (2013) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University)
Using Computer Games to Teach Adult Learners Problem Solving
Lang, J. (.-C., & O’Neil, H. F. (2011) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-410-620251021
A TA Training Lesson for Problem-Solving: How to Explain A Solution and Meet Students Where They Are
Braught, K., Evans, C., Johnson, B., & Gertner, Y. (2026) · ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) · doi:10.1145/3770761.3777214
“However, students who are novices benefit more from seeing worked examples [5].”
Gertner, Y., Solomon, B. K., Chen, H., Robson, E. W., Evans, C., & Erickson, J. (2026) · ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (SIGCSE) · doi:10.1145/3770762.3772510
“Prior findings show that students at different levels of experience and understanding benefit to different degrees from worked examples [13].”
Sécheresse, T. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c48b7211zf892z4013z9afazc3841e196e43 · Cited by 1
Optimising goal-setting strategies in worked-example learning for intellectual and motor skills
He, F., Yang, Y., Yu, Z., & Lin, H. (2026) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2026.2655882
Tithi, S. D., Tian, X., Limke, A., Chi, M., & Barnes, T. M. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791631 · Cited by 1
“These aptitude treatment interactions manifest across multiple dimensions of learner differences, including prior experience level, prior working memory, and incoming self-regulated learning ability [21, 36, 41, 83].”
Zeitlhofer, I., & Zumbach, J. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2026.103039 · Cited by 2
deVries, K., Booth, J. L., Young, L. K., Barbieri, C., Garfield, E. M., & Newton, K. J. (2022) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64802-746-820251008
Ibrahim, A. F. A., & Shah, P. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829468
“For instance, some studies have found an interaction between worked examples and individual expertise (Cooper and Sweller, 1987; Kalyuga et al., 2001; Tuovinen and Sweller, 1999), In contrast, some evidence suggests that more effortful learning strategies lead to better learning and long-term…”
Meyer, A., & Friege, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1894519
Worked Examples and Transfer: An Integrative Review, Design Framework, and Practitioner Checklist
Bourgaux, L., Tricot, A., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2026) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-026-10206-8
“Overreliance on worked examples – especially for more advanced learners – can shrink motivation and efficiency (Kalyuga 2009a; Kalyuga et al. 2001; Tetzlaff et al. 2025).”
Think-Aloud Modelling for Clinical Reasoning in Undergraduate Dental Education: A Pilot Study
Menon, R. K., Ghanem, T. A., & Hajjo, H. M. (2026) · Dentistry Journal · doi:10.3390/dj14100634
“Excessive information presented during a single teaching session may increase cognitive load and potentially interfere with learning [41].”
Teo, D. H., Lee, Y. M., & Yeo, D. J. S. (2026) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2026.2739303
“…began solving problems with little prior study (Sweller & Cooper, 1985), and the advantage of studying examples diminishes – and can even reverse – as learners’ knowledge grows (Kalyuga et al., 2001; Renkl, 2014), suggesting that “studying” tends to help earlier in learning and “practice” later.”
Teaching Analysis to Professional Writing Students: Heuristics Based on Expert Theories
Smith, S. N. (2011) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Metadata
- Authors
- Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-09
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 579-588
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2007377366
- Cited by
- 548
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 10.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.unsw.edu.au
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Keywords
- worked examples, problem solving, student knowledge, instructional guidance, mental workload, prior experience, skill acquisition, apprenticeship
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
