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When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples.
Open accessAbstract
Interactions between levels of learner knowledge in a domain and levels of instructional guidance were investigated. Inexperienced mechanical trade apprentices were presented with either a series of worked examples to study or problems to solve. On subsequent tests, inexperienced trainees benefited most from the worked examples condition, with this group performing better with lower ratings of mental load than similar trainees who solved problems. With more experience in the domain, worked examples became redundant and problem solving proved superior. It is suggested that the relative effectiveness of either worked examples or problem solving depends heavily on levels of learner knowledge.
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“Second, the worked-example effect first disappears and then reverses as the learners' expertise increases.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Problem solving only becomes relatively effective when learners are sufficiently experienced so that studying a worked example is, for them, a redundant activity that increases working memory load compared to generating a known solution”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Instructional formats that are beneficial for novice learners lose their effectiveness and can even have negative consequences for more knowledgeable learners (i.e., expertise reversal effect; Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003;Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001;Leppink, Broers, Imbos, Van der Vleuten, & Berger, 2012a, 2012b, 2013b).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001
In the citing paper
“Further, when referring to one very specific instructional feature or cognitive process to measure extraneous cognitive load or germane cognitive load, a conceptual problem may arise, because the expertise reversal effect illustrates that a particular instructional feature may be associated with germane cognitive load for one learner and with extraneous cognitive load for another learner (Kalyuga”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Kalyuga et al., 2001
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BackgroundMethodExample‐based learning: Effects of model expertise in relation to student expertise
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“The learner may not identify the relevant information pertaining to the worked example, and focuses rather on useless or secondary information [7].”
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“This in turn might have negative effects on motivational aspects of learning (and performance; see Kalyuga et al., 2001) as compared to sequences in which examples and problems are alternated.”
BackgroundFostering novice students' diagnostic ability: the value of guiding deliberate reflection
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“For example, this would shed light on individual differences in ability when using the static-solution and nosolution formats providing useful information to support the claim that experts would regard the provision of solution steps as redundant information whereas novices may not be able to deduce the solution steps…”
BackgroundSelf-citationUysal, M. P. (2014) · Contemporary Educational Technology · doi:10.30935/cedtech/6125 · Cited by 24
“Step-4: Presenting worked examples for modeling PS performance; there are studies showing that worked examples could be more beneficial for inexperienced learners since starting directly with PS may impose heavy mental load (Kalyuga et al., 2001; Sweller et al., 1998; Uysal, 2013).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-09
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 579-588
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2007377366
- Cited by
- 548
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 10.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.unsw.edu.au
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Keywords
- worked examples, problem solving, student knowledge, instructional guidance, mental workload, prior experience, skill acquisition, apprenticeship
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