Cited by 494Death Anxiety and Social ExclusionSocial and Intergroup PsychologyDeath, Funerary Practices, and Mourning

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Terror management and tolerance: Does mortality salience always intensify negative reactions to others who threaten one’s worldview?

Greenberg, Jeff, Simon, Linda, Pyszczynski, Tom, Solomon, Sheldon, Chatel, Dan·1992·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.212

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The life and death of creativity: The effects of mortality salience on self versus social-directed creative expression
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“Thus, the present work complements other findings (e.g., Cozzolino et al. 2004; Greenberg et al. 1992; Kasser and Sheldon 2000; Routledge et al. 2004; Routledge and Arndt in press) to suggest that, under certain conditions, the awareness of death isn’t always a dark force motivating defensiveness, rigidity, and greed.”
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Do Salient Social Norms Moderate Mortality Salience Effects? A (Challenging) Meta-Analysis of Terror Management Studies
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“In an early study, Greenberg et al. (1992) provided initial support for this idea by showing that activating the concept of tolerance reduced the tendency to devaluate different others after MS.”
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“…evidence that anxiety-induced intolerance can be countered by fostering and rewarding tolerance as an aspect of the cultural worldview by making tolerance both a value and a highly accessible option (Greenberg et al., 1992, p. 218; see Vail et al., 2012, for a review of supporting research).”
Background
The moderating role of extrinsic contingency focus on reactions to threat
Williams, T. J., Schimel, J., Hayes, J., & Martens, A. (2009) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.624 · Cited by 35
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“In one early demonstration of the short-term effect of thoughts of death on political attitudes, Greenberg, Simon, Pyszczynski, Solomon, and Chatel ( 1992 ) found that mortality salience, compared to a control condition, led conservatives to report more negative attitudes toward a dissimilar target who threatened thei…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The impact of implicit prejudice about the elderly on the reaction to stereotype confirmation and disconfirmation
Castelli, L., Zecchini, A., Deamicis, L., & Sherman, S. J. (2005) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-005-1012-y · Cited by 33
“F6rster and his colleagues (Ftrster, Higgins, & Strack, 2000) suggest that stereotype disconfirmation can be experienced as a personal threat that poses into question the value system and the worldview of the individual (see also Greenberg et al., 1992 ).”
Background
CHAPTER 9 Political Ideology in the 21st Century: A Terror Management Perspective on Maintenance and Change of the Status Quo
Anson, J. M., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195320916.003.009 · Cited by 33
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Schimel, J., Hayes, J., & Sharp, M. (2019) · Handbook of Terror Management Theory · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811844-3.00001-9 · Cited by 40
Personality, threat and affective responses to cultural diversity
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“In addition, in the Greenberg et al. (1992) paper, tolerance-effects were much weaker in an experiment (study 2) were an anti-U.”
Background
Liberals and conservatives can show similarities in negativity bias
Brandt, M. J., Wetherell, G. A., & Reyna, C. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13002513 · Cited by 34
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Addressing fear of death and dying: traditional and innovative interventions
Blomstrom, M., Burns, A., Larriviere, D., & Penberthy, J. K. (2020) · Mortality · doi:10.1080/13576275.2020.1810649 · Cited by 27
“High levels of anxiety and depression have been associated with high levels of mortality salience and can lead to proximal (consciously ignoring thoughts on mortality) and distal (subconsciously changing behaviours to ignore these thoughts) defence mechanisms (Burke et al., 2010; Florian & Mikulincer, 1997; Greenberg…”
Background
Death of a salesman: Webpage-based manipulations of mortality salience
Chopik, W. J., & Edelstein, R. S. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.022 · Cited by 33
“…some of the most central effects of mortality salience were observed using webpage-based manipulations—higher death-thought accessibility (Greenberg et al., 1994), greater cultural worldview defense (Greenberg et al., 1992), and increased willingness to pay for luxurious items (Arndt et al., 2004).”
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A New Way to Think About Internal and External Validity
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Structured Terror: Further Exploring the Effects of Mortality Salience and Personal Need for Structure on Worldview Defense
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“, peaceful effects), including out-group members or norm violators in certain contexts [Greenberg et al., 1992; Hirschberger et al., 2005; Jonas and Fritsche, 2013; Lieberman et al., 2001; Niesta et al., 2008; Schimel et al., 2006; Wisman and Koole, 2003].”
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Return of the Living Dead
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“Given past work demonstrating that bicultural individuals can activate different (cultural) selves in different situations (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1992), one alternative explanation for our findings is that mortality salience activated the more culturally dominant self (i.e., the Western self)…”
Background
Social curiosity as a way to overcome death anxiety: perspective of terror management theory
Fitri, R. A., Asih, S. R., & Takwin, B. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03556 · Cited by 28
“The term terror refers to the emotional manifestation of the self-preservation instinct in people who are intelligent enough to know that one day they will die (Greenberg et al., 1992).”
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Self-citation
The interactive effects of mortality salience and political orientation on moral judgments
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Lyall, H. F. C., & Thorsteinsson, E. (2007) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530601148421 · Cited by 27
Mortality salience effects on modesty and relative self‐effacement
Wakimoto, R. (2006) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2006.00194.x · Cited by 26
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de Zavala, A. D., Cichocka, A., Orehek, E., & Abdollahi, A. (2012) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.1843 · Cited by 24
“…to become more important than a need to protect the in-group and reject or aggress against the out-group (e.g., when dominant worldviews and salient norms prescribe tolerance, Greenberg et al., 1992; making concessions, Abdollahi, Henthorn & Pyszczynski, 2010; or peacemaking, Jonas et al., 2008).”
Background
Exploring how people respond to conflicts between self-interest and fairness: Influence of threats to the self on affective reactions to advantageous inequity
Loseman, A., Miedema, J., van den Bos, K., & Vermunt, R. C. (2009) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530802607605 · Cited by 27
The Psychological Effects of Terrorism are Moderated by Cultural Worldviews [Les Effets Psychologiques du Terrorisme sont Modérés par les Normes Culturelles]
Nugier, A., Roebroeck, É., Anier, N., Kleinlogel, E. P., Chatard, A., & Guimond, S. (2016) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.61 · Cited by 25
“Although there are still relatively few studies, findings suggest that reminding individuals of some core aspects of their worldviews can help them cope with the threat of death (see Greenberg et al, 1992; Gailliot et al. 2008; Jonas et al., 2008; Rothschild, Abdollahi, & Pyszczynski, 2009).”
Background
An Atheist Perspective on Self-Esteem and Meaning Making while under Death Awareness
Coleman, T. J., III, Sevi̇nç, K., Hood, R. W., & Jong, J. (2019) · Secular Studies · doi:10.1163/25892525-00102002 · Cited by 25
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McCann, S. J. H. (2009) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.3200/jrlp.143.4.341-358 · Cited by 22
Mortality salience, self-esteem, and defense of the group: mediating role of in-group identification
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The attenuating effect of mortality salience on dishonest behavior
Schindler, S., Reinhard, M., Dobiosch, S., Steffan-Fauseweh, I., Özdemir, G., & Greenberg, J. (2018) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-018-9734-y · Cited by 21
Self-citation
When thinking of my death leads to thinking of others’ deaths: the effect of collectivism, psychological closeness, and mortality salience on prosocial behavioral intentions in the Sewol ferry disaster
Lee, J., & Kim, Y. (2020) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2020.1738530 · Cited by 23
An existential perspective on violent solutions to ethno–political conflict.
Hirschberger, G., & Pyszczynski, T. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12346-016 · Cited by 22
“For example, research has shown that whereas people with a conservative political orientation respond to MS with greater intolerance, people with a liberal political orientation respond to MS with greater tolerance (Greenberg et al., 1992).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
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Cox, C. R., Darrell, A., & Arrowood, R. B. (2019) · Handbook of Terror Management Theory · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811844-3.00004-4 · Cited by 22
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Rodríguez-Ferreiro, J., Barberia, I., González-Guerra, J., & Vadillo, M. A. (2019) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.191114 · Cited by 19
“[4,7]), tend to give a larger amount of hot sauce to a person who disagrees with their worldview [8], evaluate more positively an essay that presents humans as unique and different from other animals [9], and report a stronger desire for offspring [10].”
Employees’ Death Awareness and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Moderated Mediation Model
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“In addition, employees who are anxious about their death and strongly identify with their organization are more likely to defend the organization from potential harm (e.g., poor reputation; Greenberg et al., 1992; McGregor et al., 1998; Routledge & Arndt, 2008).”
Background
Mortality threat mitigates interpersonal competition: an EEG-based hyperscanning study
Zhou, X., Pan, Y., Zhang, R., Bei, L., & Li, X. (2021) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsab033 · Cited by 22
Culture, ideology, morality, and religion: Death changes everything.
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Self-citation
Mortality Salience and Perceptions of People with AIDS: Understanding the Role of Prejudice
Grover, K. W., Miller, C. T., Solomon, S., Webster, R. J., & Saucier, D. A. (2010) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2010.519252 · Cited by 22
“…(by rating the importance of statements advocating tolerance and by recalling those statements a few minutes later), MS did not lead to the derogation of a person who criticized the United States (Greenberg et al., 1992, Study 2), regardless of the political orientation of the participants.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
The effects of existential threat on reading comprehension of worldview affirming and disconfirming information
Williams, T. J., Schimel, J., Hayes, J., & Faucher, E. H. (2012) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.1849 · Cited by 21
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“The transient nature of terrorist attacks appears to set off psychological responses akin to an unconscious fear of death (Greenberg et al., 1992).”
Background
Morbid Polarization: Exposure to COVID-19 and Partisan Disagreement about Pandemic ResponsePreprint
Rodriguez, C. G., Gadarian, S. K., Goodman, S. W., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wvyr7 · Cited by 21
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Background
An Appreciative View of the Brighter Side of Terror Management Processes
Vail, III, & Juhl, J. (2015) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci4041020 · Cited by 21
“In a related vein, based on the notion that tolerance is a more dominant value among American liberals than American conservatives, Greenberg, Simon, Pyszczynski, Solomon, and Chatel [52] hypothesized that mortality salience would increase derogation of out-group individuals among conservatives, but not liberals.”
Background
Does the Awareness of Mortality Shape People’s Openness to Violence and Conflict? An Examination of Terror Management Theory
Vergani, M., O'Brien, K. S., Lentini, P., & Barton, G. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12488 · Cited by 20
More than words: Contemplating death enhances positive emotional word use
Kashdan, T. B., DeWall, C. N., Schurtz, D. R., Deckman, T., Lykins, E. L. B., Evans, D. R., McKenzie, J., Segerstrom, S. C., Gailliot, M. T., & Brown, K. W. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.035 · Cited by 20
Being modest makes you feel bad: Effects of the modesty norm and mortality salience on self‐esteem in a collectivistic culture
Du, H., & Jonas, E. (2014) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12175 · Cited by 19
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Johnson, A. F., & Roberto, K. J. (2018) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.05.003 · Cited by 22
Taking a Turn Toward the Masculine: The Impact of Mortality Salience on Implicit Leadership Theories
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“After completing this task, participants were then asked to briefly recall the main points of the essay and then evaluate the author of the essay on a 5-item scale that is traditionally used as a measure of worldview defence (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1992).”
MethodResultInfluential
Israeli Public Opinion on the Use of Nuclear Weapons: Lessons From Terror Management Theory
Horschig, D. (2022) · Journal of Global Security Studies · doi:10.1093/jogss/ogac006 · Cited by 17
Disgust sensitivity predicts defensive responding to mortality salience.
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“We assessed worldview defense by having participants read and evaluate two essays allegedly written by students in an unrelated study (Greenberg et al., 1992).”
Method
Activism as a heroic quest for symbolic immortality: An existential perspective on collective action
Elad‐Strenger, J. (2016) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.v4i1.430 · Cited by 18
Meaning threat can promote peaceful, not only military‐based approaches to intergroup conflict: The moderating role of ingroup glorification
Rovenpor, D. R., Leidner, B., Kardoš, P., & O’Brien, T. C. (2016) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2183 · Cited by 16
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Stein, J. H., Steinley, D., & Cropanzano, R. (2010) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.729 · Cited by 17
The Liberating and Constraining Aspects of Self: Why the Freed Bird Finds a New Cage
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Self-citation
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Motyl, M. S., Hart, J., Weise, D., & Maxfield, M. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/a9c8q · Cited by 17
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Self‐Esteem: A Human Solution to the Problem of Death
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“…through positive social feedback, participants report lower levels of anxiety in response to graphic death scenes and lower physiological arousal in anticipation of receiving an electric shock (Greenberg et al., 1992; see Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004 for a full review).”
Background
On Shielding from Death as an Important Yet Malleable Motive of Worldview Defense: Christian versus Muslim Beliefs Modulating the Self-Threat of Mortality Salience
van den Bos, K., Buurman, J., de Theije, V., Doosje, B., Loseman, A., van Laarhoven, D., van Veldhuizen, T. S., & Veldman, J. (2012) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2012.30.6.778 · Cited by 15
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Fung, H. H.-L., Chu, S. T.-W., Jiang, D., Chen, A. X., & Ng, C. C. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz133 · Cited by 16
The Psychological Importance of Youth Culture
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“This may account for the rather weak effects compared to those found by Greenberg et al. (1990) and Greenberg et al. (1992).”
Result
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Self-citation
Defensive or Existential Religious Orientations and Mortality Salience Hypothesis: Using Conservatism as a Dependent Measure
Koca-Atabey, M., & Öner-Özkan, B. (2011) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2011.553319 · Cited by 16
The Politics of Mortal Terror
Cohen, F., & Solomon, S. (2011) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721411416570 · Cited by 16
Self-citation
Religious Fundamentalism and Terror Management: Differences by Interdependent and Independent Self-construal
Friedman, M., & Rholes, W. S. (2008) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860801984788 · Cited by 16
“Numerous studies show that temporarily increasing the salience of mortality leads to stronger endorsement of one's cultural worldview (eg, Greenberg, Simon, Pyszczynski, Solomon, & Chatel, 1992 ).”
Background
Effects of a Brief Mindfulness Induction on Death-Related Anxiety
Schultz, D. M., & Arnau, R. C. (2017) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/0030222817721115 · Cited by 18
Experimental peace psychology: Priming consensus mitigates aggression against outgroups under mortality salience
Abdollahi, A., Henthorn, C., & Pyszczynski, T. (2009) · Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression · doi:10.1080/19434470903319466 · Cited by 16
Self-citation
Effects of Worldview and Mortality Salience in Persuasion Processes
Magee, R. G., & Kalyanaraman, S. (2009) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213260902849919 · Cited by 16
“Mortality salience treatment and control conditions followed the widespread procedure established in previous TMT studies (e.g., Goldenberg, Pyszczynski, Johnson, Greenberg, & Solomon, 1999; Greenberg, Arndt, Simon, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 2000; Greenberg et al., 2003; Greenberg, Porteus, et al., 1995; Greenberg et al…”
Background
Emotional responses to mortality salience: Behavioral and ERPs evidence
Huang, S., Du, H., & Qu, C. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248699 · Cited by 15
“After mortality salience, the thoughts that death is inevitable will affects people’s emotion, cognition and behavior [4].”
Background
Proximate Exposure to Conflict and the Spatiotemporal Correlates of Social Trust
Lewis, J. S., & Topal, S. A. (2022) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12864 · Cited by 17
Intrinsic religiosity protects believers from the existential fear of a human Jesus
Arrowood, R. B., Cox, C. R., Weinstock, M., & Hoffman, J. (2018) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674676.2018.1512564 · Cited by 17
How the Mind Moves
Martin, L. L., Strack, F., & Stapel, D. A. (2001) · doi:10.1002/9780470998519.ch11 · Cited by 15
Accessibility, priming, and political judgment
Ottati, V., Wilson, C., & Lambert, A. J. (2016) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.010 · Cited by 13
Existential Threat Fuels Worldview Defense, but not after Priming Autonomy Orientation
Vail, K. E., Conti, J. P., Goad, A. N., & Horner, D. E. (2020) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2020.1726747 · Cited by 15
“…salient set of prosocial cultural values is of critical importance, because prior research has found that when prosocial values such as tolerance (Greenberg et al., 1992; Vail, Courtney, et al., 2019), helping (Gailliot et al., 2008), or compassion (Vail, Arndt, Motyl, & Pyszczynski, 2009) are…”
Background
Consumer Culture as Worldview Defense
Fransen, M. L., Arendsen, J., & Das, E. (2019) · Handbook of Terror Management Theory · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811844-3.00020-2 · Cited by 16
Vicarious Belongingness: Effects of Socioemotional Commercials Under Mortality Salience
Kneer, J., Hemme, I., & Bente, G. (2011) · Journal of Media Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000045 · Cited by 14
Terror in time: extending culturomics to address basic terror management mechanisms
Dechesne, M., & Bandt-Law, B. (2019) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2018.1460322 · Cited by 13
The Clinical Relevance of a Socioecological Conceptualization of Self-Worth
Batchelder, A., & Hagan, M. J. (2022) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/10892680221109201 · Cited by 17
“Although self-esteem in TMT is “a culturally based construction” (p. 437), studies on the role of self-esteem in TMT have not operationalized culturally informed contingencies outside of Western standards (Greenberg et al., 1986, 1992, 1997).”
Background
See something, say something? The role of online self-disclosure on fear of terror among young social media users
Kaskeleviciute, R., Knupfer, H., & Matthes, J. (2023) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448221148982 · Cited by 13
“Given the fundamental motive to secure oneself from death, outgroup derogation will arise when differences between people are seen as challenging one’s CWV beliefs (Greenberg et al., 1992; Pyszczynski et al., 1999).”
Desiring and Avoiding Close Romantic Attachment in Response to Mortality Salience
Coolsen, M. K., & Nelson, L. J. (2002) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.2190/2x6q-jrdw-2j7b-5j8k · Cited by 14
‘Heroes aren’t always so great!’–Heroic perceptions under mortality salience
Schindler, S., Pfattheicher, S., Reinhard, M.-A., & Greenberg, J. (2019) · Social Influence · doi:10.1080/15534510.2019.1656668 · Cited by 13
Self-citation
Mortality salience modulates cortical responses to painful somatosensory stimulation: Evidence from slow wave and delta band activity
Valentini, E., Koch, K., Nicolardi, V., & Aglioti, S. M. (2015) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.025 · Cited by 12
“…for example, that the better individuals satisfy the criteria established by their reference worldview, the more they are able to buffer the potential for anxiety emerging from awareness of mortality (Greenberg et al., 1992a, 1992b; Harmon-Jones et al., 1997; Pyszczynski et al., 2004).”

Authors: Greenberg, J., Simon, L., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Chatel, D.
ORCID: Greenberg, Jeff
Pyszczynski, Tom
Solomon, Sheldon
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1992
Volume: 63
Issue: 2
Pages: 212-220
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.212
OpenAlex: W4294945763
Cited by: 487
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 21
FWCI: 6.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Anthropology › Death, Funerary Practices, and Mourning
Keywords: terror management theory, mortality salience, tolerance, intergroup attitudes

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Terror management and tolerance: Does mortality salience always intensify negative reactions to others who threaten one’s worldview?

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