The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Abstract
Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Steele & Aronson (1995) found that”
From In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library (2015) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Other studies have found that bringing the social identities and/or the stereotypes of students of certain (typically low-status) groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn (Lyons, Simms, Begolli, & Richland, 2018;V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011), their motivation and persistence on academic tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and, even among high achievers, their commitment to their”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Social identity threat and/or identity incompatibility have been found to reduce the performance of Black and Latino students in U.S. schools and colleges (Chu & Brown, 2017;Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002;Steele & Aronson, 1995); students and young children of lower social class in the United States (Désert, Préaux, & Jund, 2009;B. Spencer & Castano, 2007), France (Croizet & Claire, 1998),”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“but that the performance of the Black students dropped when the test was described as assessing their intelligence and thus became relevant to the prevalent negative stereotype about their academic ability.”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“They are also thought to explain the finding that describing a test in terms that make evaluation possible-and thus the possibility of confirming the negative stereotype-also reduces performance among low-status groups (Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Negative stereotypes are key antecedents to threat in theories of social identity threat (especially stereotype threat; Steele & Aronson, 1995)”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“For example, one study conducted in the United States found that White students and Black students performed equally well on an intelligence test (when covariate adjusted) when the test was described as a series of puzzles”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, methodological and contextual accounts, such as stereotype threat (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995) or differential item functioning (DIF; e.g., Abad et al., 2004), suggest potential avenues through which changes to the administration of CATs could minimise mean score group differences.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, when they removed the relevancy of the stereotype by framing the same task as an exercise of problem solving, rather than an assessment of their intellect, there was no difference in the performance of Black and White students, again controlling for initial differences in skill level.”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“In their influential work, Steele and Aronson (1995) showed that when the stereotype of African American intellectual inferiority was”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Thinking that one is being evaluated through the lens of negative stereotypes can focus a person's attention on the negative aspects of a stereotype and serve to undermine achievement (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
Citations
Cites
(1954) · Cited by 15,935
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673
Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426
The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0047707 · Cited by 3,090 · cited 1×
“…may interfere with their performance in a variety of ways: by causing an arousal that reduces the range of cues participants are able to use (e.g., Easterbrook, 1959), or by diverting attention onto task-irrelevant worries (e.g., Sarason, 1972; Wine, 1971), by causing an interfering…”
BackgroundHow Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935
Baumeister, R. F. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.610 · Cited by 1,665
Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Cited by 1,640
The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509 · Cited by 1,366
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–1,000 of 8,461
Do Racial and Ethnic Group Differences in Performance on the MCAT Exam Reflect Test Bias?
Davis, D., Dorsey, J. K., Franks, R. D., Sackett, P. R., Searcy, C. A., & Zhao, X. (2013) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e318286803a · Cited by 121
Schuster, C., & Martiny, S. E. (2016) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0665-3 · Cited by 143
Facing the Challenges of a Multi-Age Workforce : A Use-Inspired Approach
Finkelstein, L. M., Truxillo, D. M., Fraccaroli, F., & Kanfer, R. (2015) · Cited by 121
The Unintended Outcomes of High-Stakes Testing
Jones, B. D. (2007) · Journal of Applied School Psychology · doi:10.1300/j370v23n02_05 · Cited by 121
Older Adults and Technology-Based Instruction: Optimizing Learning Outcomes and Transfer
Wolfson, N., Cavanagh, T. M., & Kraiger, K. (2013) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2012.0056 · Cited by 130
Schools as Developmental Contexts
Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2006) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470756607.ch7 · Cited by 121
The psychology of the affirmed learner: Spontaneous self-affirmation in the face of stress.
Brady, S. T., Reeves, S. L., Garcia, J., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Cook, J. E., Taborsky-Barba, S., Tomasetti, S., Davis, E. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000091 · Cited by 120
The Territorial State as a Figured World of Power: Strategics, Logistics, and Impersonal Rule
Mukerji, C. (2010) · Sociological Theory · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2010.01381.x · Cited by 120
Subtle, Pervasive, Harmful: Racist and Sexist Remarks in Public as Hate Speech
Nielsen, L. B. (2002) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00260 · Cited by 120
Perceived Self-Efficacy, Poverty, and Economic Development
Wuepper, D., & Lybbert, T. J. (2017) · Annual Review of Resource Economics · doi:10.1146/annurev-resource-100516-053709 · Cited by 127
Preservice teachers’ racialized emotion recognition, anger bias, and hostility attributions
Halberstadt, A. G., Castro, V. L., Chu, Q., Lozada, F. T., & Sims, C. M. (2018) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.004 · Cited by 141
Brown, R. P., & Day, E. A. (2006) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.4.979 · Cited by 120
Stereotype Threat Deconstructed
Schmader, T. (2010) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721409359292 · Cited by 120
Shapiro, J. R., Williams, A. M., & Hambarchyan, M. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030461 · Cited by 119
Jones, B. D., Ruff, C., & Paretti, M. (2013) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-013-9222-x · Cited by 119
The burden of being “model”: Racialized experiences of Asian STEM college students.
McGee, E. O., Thakore, B. K., & LaBlance, S. S. (2016) · Journal of Diversity in Higher Education · doi:10.1037/dhe0000022 · Cited by 119
Position and Possessions: Stratification Economics and Intergroup Inequality
Darity, W. A. J. (2022) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.20211690 · Cited by 119
Stereotypes and Steroids: Using a Psychobiosocial Model to Understand Cognitive Sex Differences
Halpern, D. F., & Tan, Ü. (2001) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.2001.1287 · Cited by 124
Taylor, E., & Antony, J. S. (2000) · The Journal of Negro Education · doi:10.2307/2696231 · Cited by 123
Racism camouflaged as impostorism and the impact on Black STEM doctoral students
McGee, E. O., Botchway, P. K., Naphan-Kingery, D. E., Brockman, A. J., Houston, S., & White, D. T. (2022) · Race Ethnicity and Education · doi:10.1080/13613324.2021.1924137 · Cited by 118
The social neuroscience of intergroup relations
Amodio, D. M. (2008) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280801927937 · Cited by 118
Man, I feel like a woman: When and how gender-role motivation helps mind-reading.
Thomas, G., & Maio, G. R. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013067 · Cited by 118
The focusing effect of self-evaluation threat in coaction and social comparison.
Müller, D., & Butera, F. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.194 · Cited by 118
Racial Battle Fatigue for Latina/o Students
Franklin, J. D., Smith, W. A., & Hung, M. (2014) · Journal of Hispanic Higher Education · doi:10.1177/1538192714540530 · Cited by 118
Ufkes, E. G., Calcagno, J. E., Glasford, D. E., & Dovidio, J. F. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.11.006 · Cited by 132
Boys lag behind: How teachers’ gender biases affect student achievement
Terrier, C. (2020) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.101981 · Cited by 118
Aging and recognition memory: A meta-analysis.
Fraundorf, S. H., Hourihan, K. L., Peters, R. A., & Benjamin, A. S. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000185 · Cited by 118
Presidential Address: Aspirations, Social Norms, and Development
Ferrara, E. L. (2019) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1093/jeea/jvz057 · Cited by 123
Abes, E. S. (2005) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1353/jhe.2005.0001 · Cited by 118
Navigating the future: social identity, coping, and life tasks
(2006) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-0625 · Cited by 118
Schmader, T., Forbes, C. E., Zhang, S., & Berry Mendes, W. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208330450 · Cited by 117
Bécares, L., & Priest, N. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141363 · Cited by 143
Living the dream or awakening from the nightmare: race and athletic identity
Harrison, L., Sailes, G. A., Rotich, W. K., & Bimper, A. Y. (2011) · Race Ethnicity and Education · doi:10.1080/13613324.2011.531982 · Cited by 117
Jordt, H., Eddy, S. L., Brazil, R., Lau, I. H., Mann, C., Brownell, S. E., King, K. R., & Freeman, S. (2017) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.16-12-0351 · Cited by 123
Estrada, M., Eroy-Reveles, A. A., & Matsui, J. (2018) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12046 · Cited by 126
Aronson, J. M. (2004) · Educational leadership · Cited by 117
Self-citationBarreto, M., Ellemers, N., Piebinga, L., & Moya, M. (2009) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9699-0 · Cited by 117
Stereotype Threat and the Gender Gap in Political Knowledge
McGlone, M. S., Aronson, J. M., & Kobrynowicz, D. (2006) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00314.x · Cited by 117
Self-citationJustice Expectations and Applicant Perceptions
Bell, B. S., Ryan, A. M., & Wiechmann, D. (2004) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.0965-075x.2004.00261.x · Cited by 122
Lee, J. S., & Anderson, K. T. (2009) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x08327090 · Cited by 131
Role Models in Movies: The Impact of Queen of Katwe on Students’ Educational Attainment
Riley, E. (2024) · Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/rest_a_01153 · Cited by 117
Experimental Existential Psychology: Coping With the Facts of Life
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Koole, S., & Solomon, S. (2010) · Handbook of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001020 · Cited by 116
Brown, B. A., Henderson, J. B., Gray, S., Donovan, B., Sullivan, S., Williams, A. P., & Waggstaff, W. (2015) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21249 · Cited by 116
Kang, S. K., & Chasteen, A. L. (2009) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.69.3.c · Cited by 116
Who wants to get to the top? Class and lay theories about power.
Belmi, P. R. V., & Laurin, K. (2016) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000060 · Cited by 126
Brown, N., Xie, B., Sarder, E., Fiesler, C. L., & Wiese, E. S. (2023) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3634685 · Cited by 126
Woolf, K., Cave, J., Greenhalgh, T., & Dacre, J. E. (2008) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.a1220 · Cited by 116
Deep cognitive activation: A new approach to the unconscious.
Wegner, D. M., & Smart, L. S. (1997) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.65.6.984 · Cited by 121
Rosenbloom, J. L., Ash, R. A., Dupont, B. R., & Coder, L. (2007) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2007.09.005 · Cited by 120
Foundations for Young Adult Success: A Developmental Framework
Nagaoka, J., Farrington, C. A., Ehrlich, S. B., & Heath, R. D. (2015) · doi:10.59656/yd-g1389.001 · Cited by 115
Seider, S., Clark, S., & Graves, D. (2020) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13262 · Cited by 115
Educational expectations and the rise in women’s post-secondary attainments
Reynolds, J. R., & Burge, S. W. (2007) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2007.09.002 · Cited by 115
Achievement Goals, Self-Handicapping, and Performance Attainment: A Mediational Analysis
Elliot, A. J., Cury, F., Fryer, J. W., & Huguet, P. (2006) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.28.3.344 · Cited by 115
Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Taylor, V. J. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038992 · Cited by 115
Motivation: Past, present, and future.
Graham, S., & Weiner, B. L. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13273-013 · Cited by 129
Sense of Belonging and Its Contributing Factors in Graduate Education
O’Meara, K., Griffin, K. A., Kuvaeva, A., Nyunt, G., & Robinson, T. (2017) · International journal of doctoral studies · doi:10.28945/3903 · Cited by 115
Nadal, K. L. Y., King, R., Sissoko, D. R. G., Floyd, N., & Hines, D. (2021) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100895 · Cited by 132
Désert, M., Préaux, M., & Jund, R. (2009) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/bf03173012 · Cited by 130
Stone, D. L., Stone‐Romero, E. F., & Lukaszewski, K. M. (2007) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.04.003 · Cited by 115
Testing and Assessment in Cross‐Cultural Psychology
Geisinger, K. F. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei1005 · Cited by 117
Understanding Race in Doctoral Student Socialization
Petrease Felder, P., C. Stevenson, H., & Gasman, M. (2014) · International Journal of Doctoral Studies · doi:10.28945/1947 · Cited by 114
The Effect of Gender Diversity on Angel Group Investment
Becker‐Blease, J. R., & Sohl, J. E. (2010) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00391.x · Cited by 114
Thomas, D. E., & Stevenson, H. C. (2009) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x08327164 · Cited by 120
The effect of gender stereotype activation on challenge and threat motivational states
Vick, S. B., Seery, M. D., Blascovich, J., & Max Weisbuch, A. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.02.007 · Cited by 114
A Three-Tier Hierarchy of Self-Potency
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., Luke, M. A., O’Mara, E. M., & Gebauer, J. E. (2013) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-407188-9.00005-3 · Cited by 113
Brooks, D. J. (2011) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1017/s0022381611000053 · Cited by 113
Lai, J. Y. M., Chan, K. W., & Lam, L. W. (2012) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.12.012 · Cited by 113
Stereotype manipulation effects on math and spatial test performance: A meta-analysis
Doyle, R. A., & Voyer, D. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.018 · Cited by 126
The Fact of Experience: Rethinking Political Knowledge and Civic Competence
Cramer, K. J., & Toff, B. (2017) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592717000949 · Cited by 113
van Laar, C., Meeussen, L., Veldman, J., Grootel, S. V., Sterk, N., & Jacobs, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01879 · Cited by 130
Confidence Mediates the Sex Difference in Mental Rotation Performance
Estes, Z., & Felker, S. (2011) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9875-5 · Cited by 113
Barreto, M., Ellemers, N., & Banal, S. (2006) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.314 · Cited by 112
Deemer (2014) · doi:10.1177/0894845313483003 · Cited by 112
Bimper, A. Y., Harrison, L., & Clark, L. (2012) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798412454676 · Cited by 122
Wang, M., Smith, L. V., Miller‐Cotto, D., & Huguley, J. P. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13254 · Cited by 124
Adom, K., & Anambane, G. (2019) · Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies · doi:10.1108/jeee-07-2018-0070 · Cited by 112
Swaab, R. I., Postmes, T., Neijens, P. C., Kiers, M. H., & Dumay, A. C. M. (2002) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.1080/07421222.2002.11045708 · Cited by 113
Procedural Fairness, Managers' Self-Esteem, and Managerial Behaviors Following a Layoff
Wiesenfeld, B. M., Brockner, J., & Thibault, V. (2000) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.2000.2894 · Cited by 112
McKown, C., & Strambler, M. J. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01359.x · Cited by 112
Motivational Interventions That Work: Themes and Remaining Issues
Wentzel, K. R., & Wigfield, A. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701621103 · Cited by 127
Origins of the stuttering stereotype: Stereotype formation through anchoring–adjustment
Mackinnon, S. P., Hall, S., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2007) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2007.03.003 · Cited by 112
THE HISTORY OF THE BELL CURVE: SORTING AND THE IDEA OF NORMAL
Fendler, L., & Muzaffar, I. (2008) · Educational Theory · doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.2007.0276.x · Cited by 111
Jackson, I., Sealey‐Ruiz, Y., & Watson, W. (2014) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/0042085913519336 · Cited by 111
Threatened to distraction: Mind-wandering as a consequence of stereotype threat
Mrazek, M. D., Chin, J. M., Schmader, T., Hartson, K. A., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05.011 · Cited by 111
Ahn, J. N., Hu, D., & Vega, M. (2019) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12517 · Cited by 134
Spatial Anxiety Relates to Spatial Abilities as a Function of Working Memory in Children
Ramirez, G., Gunderson, E. A., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.616214 · Cited by 111
A paradox of support seeking and rejection among the stigmatized
Williams, S. L., & Mickelson, K. D. (2008) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2008.00212.x · Cited by 111
Physical Recovery after Acute Myocardial Infarction: Positive Age Self-Stereotypes as a Resource
Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., May, J. L., & Caracciolo, E. A. (2006) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ejk1-1q0d-lhge-7a35 · Cited by 111
Third grade African American students' views of the nature of science
Walls, L. (2011) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20450 · Cited by 111
Crisp, R. J., Heuston, S., Farr, M. J., & Turner, R. N. (2007) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207071337 · Cited by 111
Report of the APA Task Force on Mental Health and Abortion
Major, B., Appelbaum, M., Beckman, L., Dutton, M. A., Russo, N. F., & West, C. (2008) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e582472010-001 · Cited by 111
Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions
Easterbrook, M. J., & Hadden, I. R. (2021) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12070 · Cited by 110
Hanselman, P., Bruch, S. K., Gamoran, A., & Borman, G. D. (2014) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/0038040714525970 · Cited by 110
Sex Differences in the Manifestation of ADHD in Emerging Adults
Fedele, D. A., Lefler, E. K., Hartung, C. M., & Canu, W. H. (2010) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054710374596 · Cited by 128
MULTICULTURAL PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
Grigorenko, E. L. (2009) · Springer eBooks · Cited by 110
Smets, W., & Struyven, K. (2020) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2020.1742273 · Cited by 110
Racial and Ethnic Minority Students' Success in STEM Education
Museus, S. D. (2011) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 110
Policing and Race: Disparate Treatment, Perceptions, and Policy Responses
Kahn, K. B., & Martin, K. D. (2016) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12019 · Cited by 119
Language Matters: Considering Microaggressions in Science
Harrison, C. D., & Tanner, K. D. (2018) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.18-01-0011 · Cited by 109
Blosser, E. (2019) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20304 · Cited by 124
Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1995-11
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 797-811
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2161923363
- Semantic Scholar
- 71dbd1d5c13d7661857b0d245f7ce1d3fac7b0c5
- Cited by
- 9,020
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 346 · 2025: 505 · 2024: 406 · 2023: 462 · 2022: 420 · 2021: 486 · 2020: 532 · 2019: 571 · 2018: 463 · 2017: 461 · 2016: 497 · 2015: 471 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 383
- FWCI
- 117.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH051977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, African Americans, standardized test performance, racial stereotypes, test-taking motivation, racial achievement gap
- MeSH terms
- Black or African American, Female, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Male, Stereotyping, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
