The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Abstract
Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Steele & Aronson (1995) found that”
From In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library (2015) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Other studies have found that bringing the social identities and/or the stereotypes of students of certain (typically low-status) groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn (Lyons, Simms, Begolli, & Richland, 2018;V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011), their motivation and persistence on academic tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and, even among high achievers, their commitment to their”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Social identity threat and/or identity incompatibility have been found to reduce the performance of Black and Latino students in U.S. schools and colleges (Chu & Brown, 2017;Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002;Steele & Aronson, 1995); students and young children of lower social class in the United States (Désert, Préaux, & Jund, 2009;B. Spencer & Castano, 2007), France (Croizet & Claire, 1998),”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“but that the performance of the Black students dropped when the test was described as assessing their intelligence and thus became relevant to the prevalent negative stereotype about their academic ability.”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“They are also thought to explain the finding that describing a test in terms that make evaluation possible-and thus the possibility of confirming the negative stereotype-also reduces performance among low-status groups (Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Negative stereotypes are key antecedents to threat in theories of social identity threat (especially stereotype threat; Steele & Aronson, 1995)”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“For example, one study conducted in the United States found that White students and Black students performed equally well on an intelligence test (when covariate adjusted) when the test was described as a series of puzzles”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, methodological and contextual accounts, such as stereotype threat (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995) or differential item functioning (DIF; e.g., Abad et al., 2004), suggest potential avenues through which changes to the administration of CATs could minimise mean score group differences.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, when they removed the relevancy of the stereotype by framing the same task as an exercise of problem solving, rather than an assessment of their intellect, there was no difference in the performance of Black and White students, again controlling for initial differences in skill level.”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“In their influential work, Steele and Aronson (1995) showed that when the stereotype of African American intellectual inferiority was”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Thinking that one is being evaluated through the lens of negative stereotypes can focus a person's attention on the negative aspects of a stereotype and serve to undermine achievement (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
Citations
Cites
(1954) · Cited by 15,935
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673
Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426
The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0047707 · Cited by 3,090 · cited 1×
“…may interfere with their performance in a variety of ways: by causing an arousal that reduces the range of cues participants are able to use (e.g., Easterbrook, 1959), or by diverting attention onto task-irrelevant worries (e.g., Sarason, 1972; Wine, 1971), by causing an interfering…”
BackgroundHow Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935
Baumeister, R. F. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.610 · Cited by 1,665
Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Cited by 1,640
The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509 · Cited by 1,366
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 801–900 of 8,461
Academic Motivation and Achievement Among Urban Adolescents
Long, J. F., Monoi, S., Harper, B. E., Knoblauch, D., & Murphy, P. K. (2007) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/0042085907300447 · Cited by 145
The psychology of invisibility.
Fryberg, S. A., & Townsend, S. S. M. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11681-010 · Cited by 136
Discreditable: Stigma Effects of Revealing a Mental Illness History on Test Performance
Quinn, D. M., Kahng, S. K., & Crocker, J. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204264088 · Cited by 135
Racism and Racial Equity in Higher Education
Museus, S. D., Ledesma, M. C., & Parker, T. L. (2015) · ASHE Higher Education Report · doi:10.1002/aehe.20067 · Cited by 135
Gaither, S. E. (2015) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721414558115 · Cited by 135
Rattan, A., Savani, K., Komarraju, M., Morrison, M. M., Boggs, C. L., & Ambady, N. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000130 · Cited by 150
When Being Different Is Detrimental: Solo Status and the Performance of Women and Racial Minorities
Thompson, M., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2002) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2002.00037.x · Cited by 135
Seidel, S. B., Reggi, A. L., Schinske, J. N., Burrus, L. W., & Tanner, K. D. (2015) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.15-03-0049 · Cited by 134
Hausmann, M., Schoofs, D., Rosenthal, H. E. S., & Jordan, K. (2008) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.09.019 · Cited by 144
Pinel, E. C., Warner, L. R., & Chua, P. (2005) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00417.x · Cited by 134
In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library
Brook, F., Ellenwood, D., & Lazzaro, A. E. (2015) · Library Trends · doi:10.1353/lib.2015.0048 · Cited by 133
Expectations about the Future and the Emotional Consequences of Perceiving Prejudice
Kaiser, C. R., Major, B., & McCoy, S. K. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203259927 · Cited by 133
Margolis, J., Ryoo, J. J., Sandoval, C. D. M., Lee, C., Goode, J., & Chapman, G. (2012) · ACM Inroads · doi:10.1145/2381083.2381102 · Cited by 133
Loyd, A. B., Kim, S. Y., Armenta, B. E., Lee, R. M., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Schwartz, S. J., Villalta, I. K., Zamboanga, B. L., Weisskirch, R. S., Juang, L. P., et al. (2014) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037531 · Cited by 147
On Defense: African American Males Making Sense of Racialized Narratives in Mathematics Education
Nasir, N. S., & Shah, N. (2011) · Issue Lab (Candid) · Cited by 133
Pietri, E. S., Johnson, I. R., & Ozgumus, E. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2017.06.021 · Cited by 146
A practical guide on conducting eye tracking studies in software engineering
Sharafi, Z., Sharif, B., Guéhéneuc, Y., Begel, A., Bednarik, R., & Crosby, M. E. (2020) · Empirical Software Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10664-020-09829-4 · Cited by 133
Katz, J., Joiner, T. E., & Kwon, P. H. (2002) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/a:1021644225878 · Cited by 133
Competence Valuation as a Strategic Intrinsic Motivation Process
Elliot, A. J., Faler, J., McGregor, H. A., Campbell, W. K., Sedikides, C., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200269004 · Cited by 141
Forbes, C. E., & Schmader, T. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020971 · Cited by 132
Richard, G. T., & Gray, K. L. (2018) · Frontiers A Journal of Women Studies · doi:10.5250/fronjwomestud.39.1.0112 · Cited by 142
Cultural models of education in American Indian, Asian American and European American contexts
Fryberg, S. A., & Markus, H. R. (2007) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-007-9017-z · Cited by 132
Chavous, T. M., Harris, A. L., Rivas‐Drake, D., Helaire, L. J., & Green, L. (2004) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000032305.48347.6d · Cited by 132
Where and with whom does a brief social-belonging intervention promote progress in college?
Walton, G. M., Murphy, M. C., Logel, C., Yeager, D. S., Goyer, J. P., Brady, S. T., Emerson, K. T. U., Paunesku, D., Fotuhi, O., Blodorn, A., et al. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.ade4420 · Cited by 131
Harnessing Values to Promote Motivation in Education
Harackiewicz, J. M., Tibbetts, Y., Canning, E., & Hyde, J. S. (2014) · Motivational Interventions · doi:10.1108/s0749-742320140000018002 · Cited by 131
Thames, A. D., Hinkin, C. H., Byrd, D., Bilder, R. M., Duff, K. J., Mindt, M. R., Arentoft, A., & Streiff, V. (2013) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617713000076 · Cited by 131
Fink, A., Cahill, M. J., McDaniel, M. A., Hoffman, A., & Frey, R. F. (2018) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c7rp00244k · Cited by 138
The influence of stereotype threat on immigrants: review and meta-analysis
Appel, M., Weber, S., & Kronberger, N. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00900 · Cited by 144
Appel, M., Kronberger, N., & Aronson, J. M. (2011) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.835 · Cited by 151
Self-citationParent-child math anxiety and math-gender stereotypes predict adolescents' math education outcomes
Casad, B. J., Hale, P., & Wachs, F. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01597 · Cited by 164
Rheinschmidt, M. L., & Mendoza‐Denton, R. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036553 · Cited by 136
SCHOLL, J. M., & Sabat, S. R. (2008) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x07006241 · Cited by 140
The Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research
Fincher, S., Robins, A. V., Margulieux, L. E., Morrison, B. B., Shephard, K., Loui, M., Borrego, M., Lancaster, T., Falkner, K., Sheard, J., et al. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555 · Cited by 141
Vrana, S. R., & Rollock, D. (2002) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930143000185 · Cited by 130
The effects of being categorised: The interplay between internal and external social identities
Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2003) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280340000045 · Cited by 140
Guimond, S., & Roussel, L. (2001) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1023/a:1011332704215 · Cited by 130
Harrison, L. A., Stevens, C. M., Monty, A. N., & Coakley, C. A. (2006) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-005-5456-6 · Cited by 129
Stereotypes and the Achievement Gap: Stereotype Threat Prior to Test Taking
Appel, M., & Kronberger, N. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9200-4 · Cited by 148
Baumert, J., Nagy, G., & Lehmann, R. (2012) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01779.x · Cited by 129
Psychological Processes Underlying Stereotype Threat and Standardized Math Test Performance
Ryan, K. E., & Ryan, A. M. (2005) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4001_4 · Cited by 138
The dynamic time course of stereotype activation: Activation, dissipation, and resurrection.
Kunda, Z., Davies, P. G., Adams, B., & Spencer, S. J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.3.283 · Cited by 129
Arndt, J., Cook, A., Goldenberg, J. L., & Cox, C. R. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.12 · Cited by 129
Situational disengagement and persistence in the face of adversity
Nussbaum, A. D., & Steele, C. M. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.007 · Cited by 128
Self-citationContending With Stereotype Threat at Work: A Model of Long-Term Responses 1Ψ7
Block, C. J., Koch, S. M., Liberman, B. E., Merriweather, T. J., & Roberson, L. (2011) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000010382459 · Cited by 128
Clark, C. J., & Winegard, B. M. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1721233 · Cited by 128
Jackson, M. C., Galvez, G., Landa, I., Buonora, P., & Thoman, D. B. (2016) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.16-01-0067 · Cited by 128
“, 2007, 2009), carry the burden of worrying that his or her performance will be judged through a stereotyped lens (Steele and Aronson, 1995; Chang et al., 2011), and feel uncertain about whether he or she can develop a sense of belonging in the science community (Darling et al.”
BackgroundThe role of working memory in sport
Furley, P., & Memmert, D. (2010) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2010.526238 · Cited by 142
Harris, B. N., McCarthy, P. C., Wright, A. M., Schutz, H., Boersma, K. S., Shepherd, S. L., Manning, L. A., Malisch, J. L., & Ellington, R. (2020) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.6915 · Cited by 145
Elements of Successful Desistance Signaling
Maruna, S. (2012) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00789.x · Cited by 128
van Laar, C. (2000) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1009032900261 · Cited by 128
Contributions to Human Development
(2014) · Contributions to human development · doi:10.1159/issn.0301-4193 · Cited by 128
Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Banko, K. M., & Cook, A. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.75.30984 · Cited by 127
Wladis, C., Conway, K. M., & Hachey, A. C. (2015) · Community College Review · doi:10.1177/0091552115571729 · Cited by 127
“Girls can't play”: The effects of stereotype threat on females' gaming performance
Kaye, L. K., & Pennington, C. R. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.02.020 · Cited by 127
Hyper-selectivity and the remaking of culture: Understanding the Asian American achievement paradox.
Zhou, M., & Lee, J. (2017) · Asian American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1037/aap0000069 · Cited by 127
Different Groups, Different Threats: A Multi-Threat Approach to the Experience of Stereotype Threats
Shapiro, J. R. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211398140 · Cited by 127
Surr, C. (2005) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.08.025 · Cited by 127
On norms and agency: conversations about gender equality with women and men in 20 countries
Boudet, A. M. M. (2013) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.51-1195 · Cited by 127
Applying an intersectionality lens to expand equity in the geosciences
Núñez, A., Rivera, J., & Hallmark, T. (2019) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2019.1675131 · Cited by 132
Stereotype Threat and Group Differences in Test Performance: A Question of Measurement Invariance.
Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & Hessen, D. J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.696 · Cited by 126
Rodgers, K. A., & Summers, J. J. (2008) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9072-9 · Cited by 152
The Genomic Revolution and Beliefs about Essential Racial Differences
Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G., & Feldman, N. M. (2013) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122413476034 · Cited by 131
Worrell, F. C. (2007) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986206296655 · Cited by 126
School Success and School Engagement of Immigrant Children and Adolescents
Motti‐Stefanidi, F., & Masten, A. S. (2013) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000139 · Cited by 126
Research Practices That Can Prevent an Inflation of False-Positive Rates
Murayama, K., Pekrun, R., & Fiedler, K. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868313496330 · Cited by 124
Shen, C., Ratan, R., Cai, Y., & Leavitt, A. (2016) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/jcc4.12159 · Cited by 138
Teachers' stereotypes of Asian, Black, and White students.
Chang, D. F., & Demyan, A. L. (2007) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/1045-3830.22.2.91 · Cited by 137
Development and examination of an expectancy-based measure of test-taking motivation.
Sanchez, R. J., Truxillo, D. M., & Bauer, T. N. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.739 · Cited by 134
Promoting Student Engagement in the Classroom
Bundick, M. J., Quaglia, R. J., Corso, M. J., & Haywood, D. E. (2014) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811411600411 · Cited by 129
Moeller, M., Harvey, M. G., Griffith, D. A., & Richey, G. (2012) · International Business Review · doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2012.02.006 · Cited by 125
Torres, V. (2006) · Journal of college student development · doi:10.1353/csd.2006.0037 · Cited by 132
Racial socialization, racial identity, and Black students' adjustment to college.
Anglin, D. M., & Wade, J. C. (2007) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.3.207 · Cited by 144
Who Sees the School Counselor for College Information? A National Study
Bryan, J. A., Holcomb‐McCoy, C. C., Moore‐Thomas, C., & Day‐Vines, N. L. (2009) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.5330/psc.n.2010-12.280 · Cited by 125
Chan, D. K., & Schmitt, N. (2004) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.0965-075x.2004.00260.x · Cited by 130
Stuttering and work life: An interpretative phenomenological analysis
Bricker‐Katz, G., Lincoln, M., & Cumming, S. (2013) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2013.08.001 · Cited by 124
Cognitive aspects of young children’s experience of economic disadvantage.
Heberle, A. E., & Carter, A. S. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000010 · Cited by 131
Rucker, D. D., Galinsky, A. D., & Magee, J. C. (2018) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.04.001 · Cited by 135
Gentile, A., Boca, S., & Giammusso, I. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.07.013 · Cited by 142
Stereotypical Perception in Management: A Review and Expansion of Role Congruity Theory
Triana, M. D. C., Song, R., Um, C. T., & Huang, L. V. (2023) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063231180836 · Cited by 145
Intergenerational potential: Effects of social interaction between older adults and adolescents.
Kessler, E., & Staudinger, U. M. (2007) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.22.4.690 · Cited by 124
Today was a good day: The daily life of software developers
Meyer, A. N., Barr, E. T., Bird, C., & Zimmermann, T. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering · doi:10.1109/tse.2019.2904957 · Cited by 123
Salehi, S., Burkholder, E., Lepage, G. P., Pollock, S., & Wieman, C. (2019) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.020114 · Cited by 123
Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028849 · Cited by 134
A Change Will Do Us Good: Threats Diminish Typical Preferences for Male Leaders
Brown, E. R., Diekman, A. B., & Schneider, M. C. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211403322 · Cited by 133
Hall, W. M., Schmader, T., & Croft, E. A. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550615572637 · Cited by 123
THE REAPPROPRIATION OF STIGMATIZING LABELS: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL IDENTITY
Galinsky, A. D., Hugenberg, K., Groom, C. J., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2004) · Research on managing groups and teams · doi:10.1016/s1534-0856(02)05009-0 · Cited by 123
An Examination of Age-Based Stereotype Threat About Cognitive Decline
Barber, S. J. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616656345 · Cited by 137
Wildes, V. J. (2005) · Tourism and Hospitality Research · doi:10.1057/palgrave.thr.6040022 · Cited by 126
Osborne, J. W. (1999) · The Journal of Negro Education · doi:10.2307/2668154 · Cited by 123
Cohen, G. L., & Steele, C. M. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012064455-1/50018-x · Cited by 123
Self-citation‘I was the special ed. girl’: urban working‐class young women of colour
Ferri, B. A., & Connor, D. J. (2009) · Gender and Education · doi:10.1080/09540250802612688 · Cited by 131
Phoenix, A. (2009) · Race Ethnicity and Education · doi:10.1080/13613320802651053 · Cited by 127
Perceived Religious Discrimination, Religiosity, and Life Satisfaction
Vang, Z. M., Hou, F., & Elder, K. (2018) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-018-0032-x · Cited by 122
Gendered patterns in the construction of physics identity from motivational factors
Kalender, Z. Y., Marshman, E., Schunn, C. D., Nokes‐Malach, T. J., & Singh, C. (2019) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.020119 · Cited by 131
Kalender, Z. Y., Marshman, E., Schunn, C. D., Nokes‐Malach, T. J., & Singh, C. (2019) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.020148 · Cited by 122
Defining Equity: Multiple Perspectives to Analyzing the Performance of Diverse Learners
Jordan, W. J. (2010) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x09352898 · Cited by 131
From imagery to intention: A dual route model of imagined contact effects
Crisp, R. J., Husnu, S., Meleady, R., Stathi, S., & Turner, R. N. (2010) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2010.543312 · Cited by 134
Shared Cognition as a Product of, and Precursor to, Shared Identity in Negotiations
Swaab, R. I., Postmes, T., van Beest, I., & Spears, R. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206294788 · Cited by 135
Aronson, J. M. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012064455-1/50017-8 · Cited by 122
Self-citationUmaña‐Taylor, A. J., Wong, J. J., Gonzales, N. A., & Dumka, L. E. (2011) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.11.003 · Cited by 121
Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1995-11
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 797-811
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2161923363
- Semantic Scholar
- 71dbd1d5c13d7661857b0d245f7ce1d3fac7b0c5
- Cited by
- 9,020
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 346 · 2025: 505 · 2024: 406 · 2023: 462 · 2022: 420 · 2021: 486 · 2020: 532 · 2019: 571 · 2018: 463 · 2017: 461 · 2016: 497 · 2015: 471 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 383
- FWCI
- 117.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH051977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, African Americans, standardized test performance, racial stereotypes, test-taking motivation, racial achievement gap
- MeSH terms
- Black or African American, Female, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Male, Stereotyping, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
