Relations Between Implicit and Explicit Measures of Attitudes and Measures of Behavior: Evidence of Moderation by Individual Difference Variables
Abstract
The moderating role of individual difference variables (Self-Reported Habit Index [SRHI], Need for Cognition [NFC]) on relationships between implicit (Implicit Association Test [IAT], Extrinsic Affective Simon Test [EAST]) or explicit measures of attitude and behavior is assessed in two studies. A dissociation pattern is found on self-report diary measures of behavior. In Study 1, the EAST—behavior relationship is moderated by SRHI; explicit measures of the attitude—behavior relationship are moderated by NFC. In Study 2, the IAT—behavior relationship is moderated by SRHI; explicit measures of the attitude—behavior relationship are moderated by NFC. Higher levels of SRHI and NFC are associated with stronger relationships between the implicit or explicit measures of attitude and the measure of behavior. In Study 2, the SRHI × IAT interaction is replicated for an objective behavior measure. Implications for understanding the relationship between implicit and explicit measures of attitudes and measures of behavior are discussed.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Two datasets used objective behaviour measures (observed food choice in a lab setting).
“Two datasets used objective behaviour measures (observed food choice in a lab setting [37, study 2; 56]).”
From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Applications of the Self-Report Habit Index to Nutrition and Physical Activity Behaviours (2011) · cites this paper as [37]
Cites
Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-3352 · Cited by 36,644 · see citing works
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1464 · Cited by 11,720 · see citing works
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 · Cited by 9,210 · see citing works
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60214-2 · Cited by 8,822 · see citing works
Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197 · Cited by 5,815 · see citing works
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116 · Cited by 5,359 · see citing works
Handbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543 · see citing works
Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315807102 · Cited by 4,211 · see citing works
Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior
Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1 · Cited by 3,984 · see citing works
Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015575 · Cited by 3,257 · see citing works
Implicit Measures in Social Cognition Research: Their Meaning and Use
Fázio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225 · Cited by 2,583 · see citing works
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Feinstein, J. A., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.197 · Cited by 2,517 · see citing works
Fázio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.6.1013 · Cited by 2,342 · see citing works
Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.1.101 · Cited by 2,112 · see citing works
Reflections on Past Behavior: A Self‐Report Index of Habit Strength <sup>1</sup>
Verplanken, B., & Orbell, S. (2003) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01951.x · Cited by 2,030 · see citing works
Multiple Processes by which Attitudes Guide Behavior: The Mode Model as an Integrative Framework
Fazio, R. H. (1990) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60318-4 · Cited by 2,002 · see citing works
The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior
Albarracin, D., Johnson, B. T., & Zanna, M. P. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410612823-13 · Cited by 1,933 · see citing works
Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytical-rational thinking styles.
Epstein, S. J., Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., & Heier, H. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.390 · Cited by 1,928 · see citing works
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013 · Cited by 1,793 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This double dissociation pattern of effects has been confirmed in several studies (e.g., Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Perugini, 2005, Study 2), but not in all studies (e.g., Karpinski & Hilton, 2001).”
ResultHofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205275613 · Cited by 1,642 · see citing works
Attitudes and the Prediction of Behavior: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature
Kraus, S. J. (1995) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167295211007 · Cited by 1,613 · see citing works
Bargh, J. A. (1994) · Cited by 1,581 · see citing works
Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62 · Cited by 1,567 · see citing works
Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.62 · Cited by 1,567 · see citing works
Petty, R. E., & Krosnick, J. A. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315807041 · Cited by 1,313 · see citing works
Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.1.53 · Cited by 1,248 · see citing works
The Single Category Implicit Association Test as a measure of implicit social cognition.
Karpinski, A., & Steinman, R. B. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.16 · Cited by 1,108 · cited 2× · see citing works
“In hindsight, a single-category IAT ( Karpinski & Steinman, 2006 ) that does not need a contrast category might have been a better suited paradigm for Study 1. A similar argument cannot be made for the EAST, which does not use a comparison category and did show predictive validity in Study 1.”
BackgroundCentral and peripheral routes to persuasion: An individual difference perspective.
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Kao, C. F., & Rodriguez, R. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.5.1032 · Cited by 1,068 · see citing works
The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior
Ajzen, I., Fishbein, M., Lohmann, S., & Albarracín, D. (2018) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · doi:10.4324/9781315178103-5 · Cited by 1,060 · see citing works
Verplanken, B., & Aarts, H. (1999) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/14792779943000035 · Cited by 1,056 · see citing works
Habits in everyday life: Thought, emotion, and action.
Wood, W., Quinn, J. M., & Kashy, D. A. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1281 · Cited by 1,028 · see citing works
Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.53 · Cited by 972 · see citing works
Predicting Behavior From Actions in the Past: Repeated Decision Making or a Matter of Habit?
Aarts, H., Verplanken, B., & van Knippenberg, A. (1998) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01681.x · Cited by 926 · see citing works
Interaction Effects in Logistic Regression
Jaccard, J. J. (2001) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412984515 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test.
Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.774 · Cited by 842 · see citing works
Beyond frequency: Habit as mental construct
Verplanken, B. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466605x49122 · Cited by 648 · see citing works
Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test.
(2001) · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.774 · Cited by 606 · see citing works
Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory
Epstein, S. J. (1998) · The Plenum series in social/clinical psychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8580-4_9 · Cited by 580 · see citing works
What are Implicit Measures and Why are We Using Them?
Houwer, J. D. (2006) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412976237.n2 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Effects of daily hassles and eating style on eating behavior.
O'Connor, D., Jones, F., Conner, M., Mcmillan, B., & Ferguson, E. (2008) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.1.s20 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Self-citationHaugtvedt, C. P., & Petty, R. E. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.308 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
Health of the Implicit Association Test at age 3.
Greenwald, A., & Nosek, B. A. (2001) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1026//0949-3946.48.2.85 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Handbook of Implicit Cognition and Addiction
Wiers, R., & Stacy, A. (2006) · doi:10.4135/9781412976237 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Petty, R. E., Haugtvedt, C. P., & Smith, S. M. (1995) · doi:10.4324/9781315807041-12 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Predictive models of implicit and explicit attitudes
Perugini, M. (2005) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466604x23491 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Extrinsic Affective Simon Task.
de Houwer, J. (2003) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//1618-3169.50.2.77 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Mental habits: metacognitive reflection on negative self-thinking.
Verplanken, B., Friborg, O., Wang, C. E., Trafimow, D., & Woolf, K. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.526 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Stress and snacking: A diary study of daily hassles and between-meal snacking
Conner, M. T., Fitter, M., & Fletcher, W. (1999) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870449908407313 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Self-citationEating Sweet Snacks: Gender Differences in Attitudes and Behaviour
Grogan, S., BELL, R., & Conner, M. T. (1997) · Appetite · doi:10.1006/appe.1996.0067 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Self-citationThe IAT as a predictor of food choice: The case of fruits versus snacks
Richetin, J., Perugini, M., Prestwich, A., & O'Gorman, R. (2007) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590601067078 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citationImplicit alcohol-related cognitions in a clinical sample of heavy drinkers
Houwer, J. D., Crombez, G., Koster, E. H. W., & Beul, N. D. (2004) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.05.001 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Single-Attribute Implicit Association Tests (SA-IAT) for the Assessment of Unipolar Constructs
Penke, L., Eichstaedt, J., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2006) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.53.4.283 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Pieters, R. G. M., & Verplanken, B. (1995) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420250505 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Huijding, J., & de Jong, P. J. (2005) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.01.007 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Richetin, J., Perugini, M., Adjali, I., & Hurling, R. (2007) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.625 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Self-citationA Pictorial Version of the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task
Huijding, J., & de Jong, P. J. (2005) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.52.4.289 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity
Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., Greenwald, A. G., et al. (2007) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e633982013-155 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The IAT as a predictor of spontaneous food choice: The case of fruits versus snacks
Richetin, J., Perugini, M., Prestwich, A., et al. (2007) · White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Gardner, B. (2015) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2013.876238 · Cited by 1,016 · see citing works
Gardner, B., de Bruijn, G.-J., & Lally, P. (2011) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-011-9282-0 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Nonconscious processes and health.
Sheeran, P., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (2013) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029203 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
The automatic component of habit in health behavior: Habit as cue-contingent automaticity.
Orbell, S., & Verplanken, B. (2010) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019596 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Reflective and Automatic Processes in the Initiation and Maintenance of Dietary Change
Rothman, A. J., Sheeran, P., & Wood, W. (2009) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-009-9118-3 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
- Authors
- Conner, M. T., Perugini, M., O'Gorman, R., Ayres, K., & Prestwich, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Leeds (GB)
- University of Essex (GB)
- University of Kent
- Corresponding author
- Conner, Mark T.
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2007-12
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1727-1740
- ISSN
- 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-7433
- OpenAlex
- W1982279429
- Cited by
- 129
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 23.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) (submittedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (submittedVersion)
- SHURA (Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive) (Sheffield Hallam University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, attitude-behavior relationship, Implicit Association Test, need for cognition, individual differences, moderation, self-reported behavior
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attitude, Behavior, England, Female, Food Preferences, Humans, Male, Predictive Value of Tests, Psychology, Social, Self Disclosure, User-Computer Interface, Evidence-Based Medicine, Behavioral Research
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
