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The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation.
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“People can thus better deal with the threat in a constructive way, rather than spend mental energy on avoidance, suppression, and rationalization (see Koole et al. 1999, Taylor & Walton 2011).”
From The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Koole et al. 1999
In the citing paper
“Several meta-analyses of internet and computerized interventions, both self-help and clinician-assisted[31,32,33,34], found that internet interventions can reduce symptoms of depression, including among those who might otherwise lack access to treatment.”
From An online positive affect skills intervention reduces depression in adults with type 2 diabetes (2014) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Those participants who aYrmed an important aspect of the self by completing the values scale were less likely to ruminate after failure (Koole et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Koole et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“It also reduces the stressfulness of evaluative situations (Creswell et al., 2005) and the cognitive accessibility of threatening cognitions (Koole et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Koole et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“self-aYrmation led to increases in implicit positive mood, which in turn was associated with decreases in ruminative thought.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Koole et al., 1999
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“On the other hand, the effects of implicit egotism are attenuated (or even disappear altogether) when people are provided with selfaffirmation (Koole et al., 1999; Brendl et al., 2005; Xinyue et al., 2006; Rudman et al., 2007).”
BackgroundCusters, R., & Aarts, H. (2005) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280500435919 · Cited by 88
Perfectionism and explicit self-esteem: The moderating role of implicit self-esteem
Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Terry, C. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601118850 · Cited by 80
“Previous research has demonstrated the reliability and validity of initials-preference scores (Bosson et al, 2000 ; Jones et al, 2002 ; Koole et al, 2001 ; Koole & Pelham, 2003 ; Koole, Smeets, van Knippenberg, & Dijksterhuis, 1999 ; Shimizu & Pelham, 2004 ).”
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On the Nature of Implicit Self-Esteem: The Case of the Name Letter Effect
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“Study 3 tests the prediction that motivated forgetting is successful when it is operates with minimal conscious intervention but that it becomes ineffective when people deliberately attempt to control it.”
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The Endowment Effect as Self-Enhancement in Response to Threat
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“Some examples of rumination include isolating oneself to dwell on one’s depressed symptoms and worrying about the possible effects of these symptoms (Koole et al. 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1994).”
BackgroundSchüz, N., Schüz, B., & Eid, M. (2013) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029887 · Cited by 70
Self-Affirmation Theory and the Science of Well-Being
Howell, A. J. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9713-5 · Cited by 74
“positive other-oriented feelings, and Lindsay and Creswell (2014) showed that self-affirmation increased self-compassion.”
BackgroundHow to Administer the Initial Preference Task
Stieger, S., Voracek, M., & Formann, A. K. (2011) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.823 · Cited by 68
“In the study by Koole et al. (2001),”
Custers, R., & Aarts, H. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206297404 · Cited by 71
Rothermund, K. (2003) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03194392 · Cited by 70
“higher and lower order goals comes from studies showing that ruminative thought after failure in a specific task can be reduced by providing self-affirmative feedback relating to the superordinate goal for which the task is relevant (Brunstein & Gollwitzer, 1996; Koole, Smeets, van Knippenberg, & Dijksterhuis, 1999 ).”
BackgroundShimizu, M., & Pelham, B. W. (2004) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.23.1.101 · Cited by 70
Hodges, A. J., & Park, B. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032681 · Cited by 67
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“Earlier studies had concluded that repetitive thoughts, especially, rumination and worry, negatively impacts affective states [23,24] and this has led to several remedies that will stop repetitive thoughts [25].”
BackgroundKoole, S. L. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.100.30985 · Cited by 68
Self-citationPerformance-approach goals deplete working memory and impair cognitive performance.
Crouzevialle, M., & Butera, F. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0029632 · Cited by 71
“In order to reduce skewness in the distribution, response times longer than 1,000 ms were excluded from the analysis (Koole et al., 1999).”
MethodGoing along versus getting it right: The role of self-integrity in political conformity
Binning, K. R., Brick, C., Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.08.008 · Cited by 64
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“Implicit PC: Implicit PC concerning the cognitive stress task was operationalized as automatic vigilance and measured with a lexical decision task (LTD; cf. Koole et al., 1999).”
MethodResultInfluentialExploring Social Media Rumination: Associations With Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Distress
Parris, L. N., Lannin, D. G., Hynes, K., & Yazedjian, A. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520946826 · Cited by 62
“Interventions grounded in self-affirmation theory may help reduce social media rumination by teaching students to reflect on values and aspects of their identities that are not externally threatened (e.g., Koole et al., 1999).”
BackgroundRumination, Dysphoria, and Subjective Experience
Smallwood, J., O’Connor, R. C., & Heim, D. (2005) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.2190/ae18-ad1v-yf7l-ekbx · Cited by 66
“Rumination has been consistently related to an exacerbation of the psychological consequences of a dysphoric mood, for example, greater deficits in problem solving [10], increased recall of negative memories [ 11 ], and a higher level of negative thoughts [12].”
BackgroundThe tormented and the transformed: Understanding responses to loss and trauma.
Davis, C. G. (2001) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10397-007 · Cited by 60
Different Selves Have Different Effects: Self-Activation and Defensive Social Comparison
Schwinghammer, S. A., Stapel, D. A., & Blanton, H. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205277096 · Cited by 59
“…with this, self-affirmations have been shown to reduce cognitive dissonance (Steele & Liu, 1983), stereotyping (Fein & Spencer, 1997), ruminative thoughts (Koole, Smeets, van Knippenberg, & Dijksterhuis, 1999), and biased processing of threatening health information (Reed & Aspinwall, 1998).”
Reichardt, R., Wittstadt, D., & Strack, F. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.10.003 · Cited by 59
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Self-Regulatory Responses to Unattainable Goals: The Role of Goal Motives
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Improving numeracy through values affirmation enhances decision and STEM outcomes
Peters, E. M., Shoots‐Reinhard, B. L., Tompkins, M. K., Schley, D. R., Meilleur, L. R., Sinayev, A., Tusler, M., Wagner, L., & Crocker, J. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0180674 · Cited by 62
Rumination as a Function of Goal Progress, Stop Rules, and Cerebral Lateralization
Martin, L. L., Shrira, I., & Startup, H. M. (2003) · doi:10.1002/9780470713853.ch8 · Cited by 57
O’Leary, M. M., Taylor, J. E., & Eckel, L. A. (2010) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.03.009 · Cited by 53
“However, this self-affirmation task has been used in similar research investigations as a precautionary measure to decrease any residual negative mood (e.g., Koole et al., 1999).”
Taylor, S. E., & Broffman, J. I. (2011) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385522-0.00001-9 · Cited by 64
Rumination, goal linking, daily hassles and life events in major depression
McIntosh, E. B., Gillanders, D. T., & Rodgers, S. (2009) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.611 · Cited by 61
Individual Differences in Self-Regulation
Kühl, J. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-65094-4_13 · Cited by 51
Heart rate variability predicts self‐control in goal pursuit
Geisler, F. C. M., & Kubiak, T. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.727 · Cited by 57
“We operationalized activation of goal representation as a faster response in a computerized lexical decision task to words related to intelligence than to words not related to intelligence (cf. Koole et al., 1999).”
MethodChon, D., & Sitkin, S. B. (2021) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2018.0079 · Cited by 59
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Familial Self as a Potent Source of Affirmation
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“Indeed, self-affirmation has been shown to reduce rumination and stress (Koole, Smeets, van Knippenberg, & Dijksterhuis, 1999 ; Wiesenfeld, Brockner, Petzall, Wolf, & Bailey, 2001 ), suggesting it could have similar effects on unrealistically pessimistic individuals.”
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Financial shame spirals: How shame intensifies financial hardship
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“…that affirmations foster an approach orientation to threat rather than avoidance, such that affirmations can make people better able to cope with threats in a constructive way rather than one in which mental energy is spent on avoidance and suppression (Koole et al., 1999; Taylor & Walton, 2011).”
BackgroundZhang, Y., & Risen, J. L. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038153 · Cited by 45
MacDonald, T. K., & Martineau, A. M. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1505 · Cited by 47
“For example, in light of the work in the area of self-affirmation theory (e.g., Steele, 1988), it might be possible to buffer the potentially negative consequences of a negative mood by providing individuals with scripts that will allow them to focus on their positive attributes (for a related discussion, see Koole, S…”
BackgroundSelf-Affirmation Activates the Ventral Striatum
Dutcher, J. M., Creswell, J. D., Pacilio, L. E., Harris, P. R., Klein, W. M. P., Levine, J. M., Bower, J. E., Muscatell, K. A., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2016) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615625989 · Cited by 44
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Liviatan, I., & Jost, J. T. (2014) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2014.32.2.95 · Cited by 44
Enhanced Expectancies Improve Performance Under Pressure
McKay, B., Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00008 · Cited by 42
“Our finding may provide teachers, coaches, and mentors with opportunities to connect performers’ past struggles to present assets, and may be akin to the self-affirmation interventions for stereotype and other threats (Koole et al., 1999; Martens et al., 2006).”
BackgroundOn Being Found: How Habitual Patterns of Thought Influence Creative Interest, Behavior, and Ability
Verhaeghen, P., Trani, A. N., & Aikman, S. N. (2017) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2017.1263504 · Cited by 44
Reducing the tendency to self-handicap: The effect of self-affirmation
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The Effects of Meritocracy Beliefs on Women's Well-Being After First-Time Gender Discrimination
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Rumination and dysphoria: The buffering role of adaptive forms of humor
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Self-Affection without Self-Reflection: Origins, Models, and Consequences of Implicit Self-Esteem
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Self-citationBoutin-Foster, C., Offidani, E., Kanna, B., Ogedegbe, G., Ravenell, J., Scott, E., Rodriguez, A., Ramos, R., Michelen, W., Gerber, L. M., et al. (2016) · Ethnicity & Disease · doi:10.18865/ed.26.1.51 · Cited by 41
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Cheatham, L. B., & Tormala, Z. L. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216673349 · Cited by 41
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Defending the self against identity misclassification
Prewitt-Freilino, J. L., & Bosson, J. K. (2008) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/17405620701330706 · Cited by 43
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“Self-affirmation has been shown to facilitate self-regulation in a whole range of different settings, like in cases of rumination (Koole et al., 1999), the challenge of one’s beliefs (Cohen et al., 2000), threatening health messages (Sherman, Nelson, & Steele, 2000) and mortality threat (Schmeichel…”
BackgroundHarm that does not hurt: Humour in coping with self-threat
Geisler, F. C. M., & Weber, H. (2010) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-010-9185-6 · Cited by 48
“We administered a measure of implicit affect based on the principle of feeling as information (Hass et al. 1992; Koole et al. 1999; Wilson et al. 2007).”
MethodMeasuring brand-related content in social media: a socialization theory perspective
Sabermajidi, N., Naser, V., Balaji, M. S., & Goh, S. K. (2019) · Information Technology and People · doi:10.1108/itp-10-2018-0497 · Cited by 37
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“…self-affirmation has been widely introduced in the hope that it can help offset the negative effects of rumination around perceived threats (Brandrick et al., 2021; Brooks, 2014; Jackson et al., 2017; Koole et al., 1999; Sherman, 2013; Sherman et al., 2000; Sherman & Cohen, 2006; Steele, 1988).”
BackgroundSelf-affirming trait kindness regulates disgust toward one's physical appearance
Powell, P. A., Simpson, J., & Overton, P. G. (2014) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.10.006 · Cited by 37
Bugay-Sökmez, A., Manuoğlu, E., Coşkun, M., & Sümer, N. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01799-0 · Cited by 42
Integrating Self-Affirmation with Health Risk Messages: Effects on Message Evaluation and Response
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Implicit volition and stereotype control
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“…failure feedback, such as poor performance being recorded in a domain of importance to the individual (e.g., Gollwitzer, Wicklund, & Hilton, 1982; Koole et al., 1999; Spencer et al., 1998). stereotype-relevant words, suggesting that only a negative stereotype was activated as a strategic, yet…”
BackgroundMcGregor, I., Prentice, M. S., & Nash, K. A. (2012) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2012.30.6.689 · Cited by 36
Performance and learning goals for emotion regulation
Rusk, N., Tamir, M., & Rothbaum, F. M. (2011) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9229-6 · Cited by 43
“Why do some people persistently use emotion regulation strategies that increase their negative emotion? Several lines of research suggest that people’s strategies depend on their goals (e.g., Dykman 1998; Koole et al. 1999; Tamir 2005).”
BackgroundContext Moderates Affirmation Effects on the Ethnic Achievement Gap
Protzko, J., & Aronson, J. (2016) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550616646426 · Cited by 39
Individuelle Unterschiede in der Selbststeuerung
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What’s really in a Name-Letter Effect? Name-letter preferences as indirect measures of self-esteem
Hoorens, V. (2014) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2014.980085 · Cited by 38
“In an experiment on preferences for both initials and non-initials, a self-affirmation manipulation strengthened preferences for initials but not for non-initials (Koole et al., 1999, Study 3).”
Jostmann, N. B., Karremans, J. C., & Finkenauer, C. (2011) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.541139 · Cited by 31
“A variety of strategies have been suggested that could be helpful to ameliorate the consequences of rumination such as affirming one's core values (Koole, Smeets, Van Knippenberg, & Dijksterhuis, 1999 ), or immediate distraction followed by problem solving (Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 2008).”
BackgroundKoole, S. L., & van Knippenberg, A. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.07.001 · Cited by 32
Self-citationThe Sting of Lack of Affection: Chronic Goal Dissatisfaction in Transference
Berk, M. S., & Andersen, S. M. (2008) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860701800092 · Cited by 30
“That this effect occurred only in familial relationships would seem to highlight the relevance of long-lasting relationships in which there are exigencies for continued engagement (eg, Koole, Smeets, van Knippenberg, & Dijksterhuis, 1999 ; Martin & Tesser, 1989 ).”
BackgroundThe persuasive effects of personalization through: name mentioning in a smoking cessation message
Dijkstra, A. (2014) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-014-9147-x · Cited by 32
“The self-affirmation procedure was offered before participants were provided with the persuasive information and it was based on Allport et al. (1960) study of values (Koole et al. 1999).”
MethodCompensatory cognition associated with egalitarian goals
Moskowitz, G. B., Li, P., Ignarri, C., & Stone, J. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.08.010 · Cited by 32
Striving for positive self-evaluation as a motive for schadenfreude
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Individuelle Unterschiede in der Selbststeuerung
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Relational selves as self-affirmational resources
Chen, S., & Boucher, H. C. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.09.006 · Cited by 29
Power Affects Performance When the Pressure Is On
Kang, S. K., Galinsky, A. D., Kray, L. J., & Shirako, A. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215577365 · Cited by 29
Gollwitzer, P. M., Marquardt, M. K., Scherer, M., & Fujita, K. (2013) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550612471143 · Cited by 28
“Threats to the more important self-aspect, however, can be addressed by the less important self-aspect only to a very small extent, limiting the person to reestablish general self-worth by directly addressing the specific threatened self-aspect (see also Koole et al., 1999).”
BackgroundAlquist, J. L., Baumeister, R. F., McGregor, I., Core, T. J., Benjamin, I., & Tice, D. M. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2017.09.010 · Cited by 32
Nonconscious Goal Pursuit and the Effortful Control of Behavior
Hassin, R. R., Aarts, H., Eitam, B., Ruud Custers, A., & Kleiman, T. (2008) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195309980.003.0026 · Cited by 28
Moskowitz, J., Carrico, A. W., Cohn, M., Duncan, L. G., Bussolari, C. J., Layous, K., Hult, J. R., Brousset, A., Cotten, P. D., Maurer, S., et al. (2014) · Open Access Journal of Clinical Trials · doi:10.2147/oajct.s64645 · Cited by 28
Selective Sensitization: Consuming a Food Activates a Goal to Consume Its Complements
Huh, Y. E., Vosgerau, J., & Morewedge, C. K. (2016) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.12.0240 · Cited by 27
“Goal activation enhances the accessibility of goalrelated constructs until the goal is fulfilled (Koole et al. 1999; Liviatan and Jost 2014; Shah and Kruglanski 2002), and faster reaction times in lexical decision tasks indicate that a concept is more cognitively accessible (Neely 1991).”
BackgroundRumination and depressive symptoms: Moderating role of defense style immaturity
Kwon, P. H., & Olson, M. L. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.01.012 · Cited by 26
Miller, C. W., & Roloff, M. E. (2014) · Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1080/01463373.2014.890118 · Cited by 24
Sofia, R. M., & Cruz, J. F. A. (2015) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2015.1121170 · Cited by 28
How Goals and Beliefs Lead People into and Out of Depression
Rothbaum, F. M., Morling, B., & Rusk, N. (2009) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0017140 · Cited by 28
“From our perspective, affirmation of values is effective because it reduces people’s focus on proving their selfworth (cf. Koole et al., 1999), and it increases their focus on goals outside themselves, the pursuit of which requires learning and personal growth.”
BackgroundSelf-esteem, ingroup favoritism, and outgroup evaluations: A meta-analysis
Rivera, L. M., Vu, H. A., & Backstrom, V. L. (2024) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302231210496 · Cited by 24
“By comparison, an affirmation typically boosts self-esteem and fulfills self-image needs (Koole et al., 1999, Study 3; Steele, 1988).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Koole, S. L., Smeets, K., van Knippenberg, A., & Dijksterhuis, A.
- Affiliations
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- ORCID
- Koole, Sander L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1999-07
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 111-125
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1992554080
- Semantic Scholar
- 02383043ba598c1d233ede60c2b64c29a71d6ef4
- Cited by
- 403
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 9.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- rumination, self-affirmation, self-affirmation theory, self-concept
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