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Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
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In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
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“…frequent, higher-stakes tests (Hinze & Rapp, 2014, EL: 3; Nguyen & Ryan, 2008, EL: 1; Shewach et al., 2019, EL: 1), which in turn can help improve study behaviors and test performance (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997, EL: 1; Hembree, 1988, EL: 1; Sarason, 1980, EL: 2; von der Embse et al., 2018, EL: 1).”
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“Interestingly, these four Functional Work Areas bear a striking resemblance to the four “trait complexes” recently identified by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) in their comprehensive review and meta-analysis of relationships between abilities, vocational interests, and personality.”
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Do cognitive traits associate with everyday behaviour in the domestic dog, Canis familiaris?
Junttila, S., Valros, A., Mäki, K., & Tiira, K. (2024) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2024.04.012 · Cited by 11
“…consistent individual differences in behaviour) may not be completely separate constructs, as is often thought, but are instead interconnected both in humans (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2014) and in other animals (Carere & Locurto, 2011; Dougherty & Guillette, 2018).”
BackgroundOscillatory correlates of moral decision-making: Effect of personality
Knyazev, G. G., Savostyanov, A. N., Bocharov, A. V., Дорошева, Е. А., Tamozhnikov, S. S., & Сапрыгин, А. Е. (2015) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2015.1072110 · Cited by 13
“Numerous studies have shown that Openness/Intellect correlatesmoderatelywith intelligence (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Ashton, Lee, Vernon, & Jang, 2000; Bates & Shieles, 2003; Holland, Dollinger, Holland, & MacDonald, 1995).”
Precisão de avaliadores na avaliação da criatividade por meio da produção de metáforas
Primi, R., Miguel, F. K., Couto, G., & Muniz, M. (2007) · Psico-USF · doi:10.1590/s1413-82712007000200008 · Cited by 11
Intelligence as Potentiality and Actuality
Ackerman, P. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316817049.002 · Cited by 11
Self-citationVocational Interests and Work Outcomes
Nye, C. D., Bhatia, S., & Prasad, J. J. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315678924-6 · Cited by 11
Solano, A. C., & Cosentino, A. C. (2019) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v15i4.1759 · Cited by 13
“It is necessary to consider why personological variables, in this case positive traits, are expected to correlate with academic performance, given that the personality variables were not designed to predict such an outcome (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundThe Five-Factor Model of Personality: Consensus and Controversy
McCrae, R. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.013 · Cited by 20
McFarland, L. A., & Kim, Y. (2020) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12431 · Cited by 12
Murphy, K. R. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197809013.003.0003 · Cited by 16
Willoughby, E. A., Kim, Y., Lee, J. J., & DeYoung, C. G. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11020030 · Cited by 12
Typical intellectual engagement and achievement in math and the sciences in secondary education
Schroeders, U., Schipolowski, S., & Böhme, K. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.08.030 · Cited by 12
Highbrow cultural activities, social background, and openness in lower-secondary level students
Kröner, S., Vock, M., Robitzsch, A., & Köller, O. (2012) · Pedocs (German Institute for International Educational Research) · doi:10.25656/01:7479 · Cited by 11
Vocational assessment of secondary students with disabilities and the school psychologist
Fives, C. J. (2008) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20320 · Cited by 13
Development and Validation of an 18-Item Medium Form of the Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices
Sefcek, J. A., Miller, G. F., & Figueredo, A. J. (2016) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244016651915 · Cited by 11
“In addition, the APM scales were positively related to Openness (rs = .26 and .25, p < .01, respectively) and negatively to Conscientiousness (for each, r = −.16, p < .05), a finding consistent with previous research (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Moutafi, Furnham, & Crump, 2003).”
ResultDiedrich, J., Neubauer, A. C., & Ortner, A. (2018) · International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.13152/ijrvet.5.2.1 · Cited by 10
“…are mostly not correlated (r’s <.10) with big five traits; with only two exceptions: Furnham, Moutafi and Chamorro-Premuzic (2005) found openness correlated at .21 with fluid intelligence, and Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997 observed a negative correlation (-.15) of intelligence with Neuroticism.”
BackgroundBonetti, L., Brattico, E., Vuust, P., Kliuchko, M., & Saarikallio, S. H. (2020) · Empirical Studies of the Arts · doi:10.1177/0276237420951414 · Cited by 15
“Starting from the work by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) that depicted a positive relation between extraversion and intelligence, Wolf and Ackerman (2005) performed an updated meta-analysis, showing that different studies presented different results and highlighting that the overall relation between…”
Silvia, P. J., & Beaty, R. E. (2021) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence9010002 · Cited by 10
Common genetic basis of the five factor model facets and intelligence: A twin study
Nikolašević, Ž., Dinić, B. M., Smederevac, S., Sadiković, S., Milovanović, I. Z., Ignjatović, V. B., Prinz, M., Budimlija, Z. M., & Bosić, D. Z. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110682 · Cited by 11
Assessment of Interest and Aptitude: A Methodologically Integrated Approach
Arulmani, G. (2014) · International and cultural psychology/International and cultural psychology series · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9460-7_34 · Cited by 11
The Relation of Self-Reported Abilities to Aptitude Test Scores: A Replication and Extension
Carson, A. D. (1998) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1006/jvbe.1998.1641 · Cited by 11
SELF-ESTIMATED INTELLIGENCE, PSYCHOMETRIC INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY
Furnham, A. F. (2005) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2005.182 · Cited by 11
“Both constructs have been traditionally investigated independently, prompting the development of different methods and theories (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Cronbach, 1949; Hofstee, 2001; Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodProcessus de Changement et Variabilité Individuelle au Cours des Consultations d’Orientation
Covali, T., Bernaud, J., & Fabio, A. D. (2011) · Swiss Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1024/1421-0185/a000053 · Cited by 11
Dark side of personality, intelligence, creativity, and managerial level
Ahmetoglu, G., Dobbs, S., Furnham, A. F., Crump, J., Chamorro‐Premuzic, T., & Bakhshalian, E. (2016) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/jmp-03-2013-0096 · Cited by 11
Semantic and linguistic aspects of personality
Saucier, G. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.025 · Cited by 14
Are personality traits associated with cognitive disturbance in psychosis?
Cuesta, M. J., Peralta, V., & Zarzuela, A. (2001) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(00)00153-5 · Cited by 11
Neuroticism is correlated with drift in serial time interval production
Forsman, L. J., Madison, G., & Ullén, F. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.02.020 · Cited by 10
Does Core Self Evaluations predict career success? A reanalysis of Judge and Hurst (2008)
Ganzach, Y., & Pazy, A. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.11.003 · Cited by 10
“First because GMA and personality (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Goff & Ackerman, 1992), particularly GMA and CSE (Austin, Deary, Whiteman, Fowkes, Pedersen, Rabbitt, & McInnes, 2002; Demetriou, Kyriakides, & Avraamidou, 2003, and in particular see our results below), are correlated.”
BackgroundErmüdungs- und Übungseffekte bei mehrstündiger kognitiver Beanspruchung
Süß, H., & Schmiedek, F. (2000) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//0949-3964.47.3.162 · Cited by 10
Blanco, E., García, L. F., & Aluja, A. (2016) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12307 · Cited by 13
Mammadov, S. (2016) · W&M Publish (College of William & Mary) · doi:10.21220/w4vc7j · Cited by 9
Cognitive abilities and personality traits in old age across four years: More stability than change
Aschwanden, D., Martin, M., & Allemand, M. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.08.002 · Cited by 15
Gender, Racial, and Ethnic Differences in Job Context and Work-Activity Preferences
Johnson, J. F., Trent, J. D., & Barron, L. G. (2017) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1037/mil0000191 · Cited by 10
“…differences on cognitive ability test scores in applicant samples (e.g., Roth, Bevier, Bobko, Switzer, & Tyler, 2001) and there is some evidence that cognitive ability can impact vocational interests in both depth/breadth and preference (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Pässler, Beinicke, & Hell, 2015).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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