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Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
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In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
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“There is evidence for a substantial genetic component to vocational interests (Betsworth et al., 1994), and some researchers have argued that they belong in the same discussion as other traits known to have substantial heritable components (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
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“One framework that brings together personality, interest, and motivational trait variables is the “trait complex” approach proposed by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), and subsequently validated by others (e.g., Staggs, Larson, & Borgen, 2007; Sullivan & Hansen, 2004) and extended by Ackerman and…”
ResultSelf-citationPERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE PREDICT ARTS AND SCIENCE SCHOOL RESULTS IN 16 YEAR OLDS
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“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., Psychological Test Adaptation and Development (2023), 4, 156–167 https://doi.org/10.1027/2698-1866/a000048 © 2023 The…”
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“However, the findings of Farsides & Woodfield [38] and Rosander, et al. [41] were quite different from that of Ackerman and Heggestad [37], who found the strongest link between intelligence and Openness (O), and weaker links between intelligence and the other four personality traits of Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E…”
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“Some of the first studies examining concurrent personality-cognition relationships focused on relationships between personality and gross-scale measures of aptitude and fluid intelligence in young adults (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Lorge, 1940).”
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“Source: Recreated from Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), based on Carroll (1993).”
BackgroundMethodBıçakçı, M., & Балоглу, М. (2021) · Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.19171/uefad.845218 · Cited by 8
“…literatüre bakıldığında, akranlarına kıyasla, deneyime açıklık kişilik özelliği ortalama puanlarının yüksek, nevrotiklik ortalama puanlarının ise düşük olduğu üzerine bir eğilim görülmektedir (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Bıçakçı, 2020; DeYoung, 2011; Mammadov, 2016; Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
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“To be specific, high Openness drivers are prone to seek intellectually challenging activities to meet their requirement for enjoyment of novelty and curiosity (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
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“Dynamic predictions propose that the investment of Gf influences the course of Gc and educational outcomes during the schooling period in combination with third factors such as interests or memory (Ackerman 1996; Ackerman and Heggestad 1997).”
BackgroundRated personality and measured intelligence in young twin children
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An empirical investigation of faculty research productivity and implications for practice
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“According to a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), there is no correlation between extraversion and memory.”
MethodGeneral Mental Ability as a Source of Differential Functioning in Personality Scales
DuVernet, A. M., Wright, N. A., Meade, A. W., Coughlin, C., & Kantrowitz, T. M. (2014) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428114525996 · Cited by 8
“Further, a pervasive finding in selection research is that general mental ability (GMA) test scores have small correlations with measures of personality (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, & Ackerman, 2006; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998).”
BackgroundThe Relationship Between Personality and Self-Report Abilities
Schermer, J. A., Johnson, A. M., Vernon, P. A., et al. (2011) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000035 · Cited by 8
“…variability (often related to availability of education or employment), broader vocational choices may be predicted by factors such as personality (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Carless, 1999; Larson, Rottinghaus, & Borgen, 2002; Tokar, Fischer, & Subich, 1998), vocational interests, or…”
BackgroundCaprara, G. V., & Vecchione, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.038 · Cited by 9
Gender Differences in the Relationships Between Big Five Personality Traits and Intelligence
Ismatullina, V. I., & Александрович, В. И. (2017) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2017.02.031 · Cited by 8
Associations of intelligence across the life course with optimism and pessimism in older age
Taylor, A. M., Ritchie, S. J., & Deary, I. J. (2017) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.03.002 · Cited by 8
“In a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), neuroticism (considered to be negative emotionality)was shown to have amodest negative correlationwith general intelligence (r = −0.15), whereas extraversion (considered to be positive emotionality) was found to have a lower positive correlation…”
BackgroundInfluentialEtzel, J. M., & Nagy, G. (2019) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2019.01.003 · Cited by 7
Individuality and Optimal Human Functioning: Interests, Self-Efficacy, and Personality
Walsh, W. B. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410609205-8 · Cited by 8
Proofreading as an index of crystallised intelligence
Furnham, A. F. (2010) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2010.506005 · Cited by 8
“The Baddeley verbal reasoning test yields very similar significant correlates around r = .30; learning style is unrelated to PR; the two Big Five variables ‘implicated’ in PR are openness and conscientiousness.”
BackgroundInfluentialEvidence of validity for the Skill Scale scores of the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey
Hansen, J. C., & Leuty, M. E. (2007) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.04.006 · Cited by 8
The correlation of Personality Traits and Academic performance: A review of literature
Kumari, B. (2014) · IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science · doi:10.9790/0837-19471518 · Cited by 8
“It is important to consider why personality should be expected to be correlated with academic performance when most measures of personality, including the Five Factor Model, were not designed to predict academic performance (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundSelbstregulation, Regulationsfokus und Arbeitsmotivation
Holler, M., Fellner, B., & Kirchler, E. M. (2005) · Journal für Betriebswirtschaft · doi:10.1007/s11301-005-0011-2 · Cited by 10
TOLERANCE FOR ERROR AND COMPUTATIONAL ESTIMATION ABILITY
Hogan, T. P., Wyckoff, L. A., Krebs, P. M., Jones, W., & Fitzgerald, M. P. (2004) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.94.3c.1393-1403 · Cited by 7
“However, we note that other research results on estimation have been similar at elementary school, high school, and college. For example, estimation strategies reported by several investigators have been similar across levels (Reys, et al., 1980, 1982; Dowker, 1992; LeFevre, et al., 1993; Dowker, Flood, Griffiths, Har…”
MethodResultInfluentialApproche des traits de personnalité : postulats, controverses et progrès récents
Morizot, J., & Miranda, D. (2023) · Revue de psychoéducation · doi:10.7202/1097129ar · Cited by 14
Lyon, R. E., Rizeq, J., Flora, D. B., Martinussen, R., Andrade, B. F., & Toplak, M. E. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12081033 · Cited by 7
Anglim, J., & Marty, A. (2024) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506241281025 · Cited by 21
“Despite extensive research on the personality correlates of intelligence (for meta-analyses, see P. L. Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Anglim, Dunlop, et al., 2022; Stanek & Ones, 2023), the relationship between intelligence and personal values remains underexplored.”
Challenges and Opportunities for the Assessment of Social-Emotional Skills
Fruyt, F. D., & Scheirlinckx, J. (2025) · ECNU Review of Education · doi:10.1177/20965311251319355 · Cited by 13
Etzel, J. M., Wille, B., Fruyt, F. D., & Nagy, G. (2025) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2025.104191 · Cited by 3
Rationality and the reflective mind: A case for typical performance measure of cognitive ability
Ganuthula, V. R. R., & Dyaram, L. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.06.019 · Cited by 7
Editing Personality For Large Language Models
Mao, S., Wang, X., Wang, M., Jiang, Y., Xie, P., Huang, F., & Zhang, N. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-9434-8_19 · Cited by 59
“Meanwhile, previous works (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Larson et al., 2002) have demonstrated that personal opinions can reflect an individual’s unique personality traits.”
BackgroundGeary, D. C. (2007) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-588-220251002 · Cited by 15
Personality in educational psychology
Zeidner, M. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511596544.045 · Cited by 7
Vocational Personality Traits in Counselor Education and School Psychology Students
Ding, Y., Salyers, K. M., Kozelka, S., et al. (2015) · Journal of Employment Counseling · doi:10.1002/joec.12021 · Cited by 7
“Many researchers have evaluated the role of cognitive differences as predictors of graduate student success (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Busato, Prins, Elshout, & Hamaker, 2000), but few have examined vocational personality differences, such as interests and values, as predictors or…”
BackgroundMedical University Students' Personality and Learning Performance: Learning Burnout as a Mediator
Zeng, L., Chen, D., Xiong, K., Pang, A., Huang, J., & Zeng, L. (2015) · International Conference on Information Technology in Medicine and Education · doi:10.1109/itme.2015.143 · Cited by 7
“Evidence is accumulating which suggests that virtually all personality measures can be reduced or categorized under the umbrella of a five-factor model of personality, which has subsequently been labeled as the “Big Five” [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialPurposeful Fulfillment of Creative Potential
Tinio, P. P. L., & Barbot, B. (2016) · Creativity theory and action in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21924-0_7 · Cited by 7
Terminal decline of episodic memory and perceptual speed in a biracial population
Wilson, R. S., Rajan, K. B., Barnes, L. L., Jansen, W. J., Amofa, P., Weuve, J., & Evans, D. A. (2017) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2017.1306020 · Cited by 7
“It is noteworthy that higher level of conscientiousness is also associated with better executive functioning (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Booth, Schinka, Brown, Mortimer, & Borenstein, 2006; Wilson, Schneider, Arnold, Bienias, & Bennett, 2007) and with reduced terminal cognitive decline (Wilson et…”
BackgroundShephard, K. L. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.011 · Cited by 8
Student Knowledge and Misconceptions
Lewis, C. M., Clancy, M. J., & Vahrenhold, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.028 · Cited by 7
Shapiro, R. B., & Tissenbaum, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.021 · Cited by 9
Computing Education Research Today
Fincher, S. A., Tenenberg, J., Dorn, B., Hundhausen, C., McCartney, R., & Murphy, L. (2019) · The Cambridge Handbook of Computing Education Research · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.003 · Cited by 7
Conceptual and Historical Perspectives
Cloninger, S. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.004 · Cited by 8
Haden, P. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.007 · Cited by 10
Roemer, L., Stoll, G., Rounds, J., & Ziegler, M. D. (2023) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070231205040 · Cited by 8
“At trait level, speci fi c pairs of personality and interest domains count on similar psychological processes (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Mount et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMatthews, G., Deary, I. J., & Whiteman, M. C. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812736.011 · Cited by 7
Relationships Between Migration to Urban Settings and Children's Creative Inclinations
Shi, B., Lu, Y.-L., Dai, D., & Lin, C.-D. (2013) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2013.813793 · Cited by 7
“Intelligence contributes to creative inclinations through its links to enhanced self-confidence and cognitive motivation such as curiosity and interest (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundEfficacy of Cognitive Therapy in the Treatment of Test Anxiety
Nadinloyi, K. B., Sadeghi, H., Garamaleki, N. S., Rostami, H., & Hatami, G. (2013) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.556 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
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