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Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
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In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
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“Pioneers of the research for this are Le Boterf (2010), Boyatzis (1982, 2008), Spencer, Spencer (1993), Collin (1997), Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), Poole, Warner (1998), Schoonover (2011), Weinert (2001). Its concept describes a combination of knowledge, skills and ability to adapt them in particular circumstances.…”
BackgroundInfluentialPersonality types and intercultural competence of foreign language learners in education context
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“,[2] have suggested that “individual difference variables such as personality, intelligence, and vocational interests can be used to explain not only variance in academic performance, but also the processes by which traits influence examination outcomes.”
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“This study was carried out in compliance with the Helsinki guidelines. with curiosity, risk-taking, a desire for new experiences, and receptiveness to new ideas (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997 ), traits that are often more pronounced in youth.”
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“As demonstrated in [6] the relation between personality, intelligence, and interests; and in [7] that scholastic performance is unified with personality”
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Kerr, B. A., Wright, J. D., Huffman, J. M., Birdnow, M., Reder, M. A., Stull, O. A., & Malmsten, R. N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-56869-6_12 · Cited by 7
Achievement tests and the importance of intelligence and personality in predicting life outcomes
Ganzach, Y., & Zisman, C. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101679 · Cited by 5
Predicting School Grades: Can Conscientiousness Compensate for Intelligence?
Friedrich, T. S., & Schütz, A. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11070146 · Cited by 6
Principles and Applications of Educational and Psychological Testing
Fogarty, G. J. (2008) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789087905552_015 · Cited by 5
“The reader is referred to a text devoted exclusively to psychological testing, such as Anastasi and Urbina (1997), for an overview of virtually the whole testing domain.”
BackgroundInfluentialBlanchet, A. (2018) · Canadian Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s000842391800046x · Cited by 5
“Moreover, because openness to experience and cognitive skills are known to be related (for example, Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Austin et al. 2002; Brand, 1994; Chamorro-Premuzic, et al., 2005; Furnham et al., 2005; McCrae 1994; Moutafi et al. 2003; Moutafi et al., 2005; Zeidner and Matthews,…”
BackgroundKrach, S. K., McCreery, M. P., Loe, S. A., & Jones, W. P. (2015) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2015.1066908 · Cited by 6
“Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) conducted a metaanalysis that found correlations between intelligence measures of openness ranging from coefficients of 0.”
BackgroundInfluentialBloye, E. J. (2008) · Cited by 5
L’évolution des intérêts des adolescents à la fin du collège : 1978-2004
Forner, Y., Lasne-Cordonnier, A., Mercier, C.-M., & Salhi, H. (2006) · L’Orientation scolaire et professionnelle · doi:10.4000/osp.969 · Cited by 6
Age-Related Differences in Typical Intellectual Engagement Between Young and Old Adults
Mascherek, A., & Zimprich, D. (2012) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2012.637007 · Cited by 5
RetractedPsychological Predictors of Job Performance and Career Success in Professional Sport
Stanimirovic, R., & Hanrahan, S. J. (2010) · Sport Science Review · doi:10.2478/v10237-011-0013-z · Cited by 7
“Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices were used to measure GMA (first step), Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire was used to measure FFm (second step), and the EQ-i and mScEIt were included as measures of trait and ability EI (third step alternatively).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe contribution of personality to graduate managerial training
Ineson, E. M. (2010) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.11.008 · Cited by 5
Sun, J.-T. (2011) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · Cited by 5
Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Skwerer, D. P. (2009) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-3370-7.00081-x · Cited by 5
Human Factors Influencing Decision Making
Jacobs, P. A., & Gaver, D. P. (1998) · doi:10.21236/ada351910 · Cited by 5
Munhoz, A. M. H. (2004) · doi:10.47749/t/unicamp.2004.307065 · Cited by 5
Gasser, C. E. (2005) · doi:10.31274/rtd-180813-711 · Cited by 5
The effect of test anxiety on high-stakes exams: evidence from an RCT using biomarkers
Macrì, E., & Migali, G. (2024) · Education Economics · doi:10.1080/09645292.2024.2391801 · Cited by 2
“Other studies demonstrate that females suffer test anxiety more than males, and this is negatively reflected in their academic achievements (Ackerman and Heggestad 1997; Bandalos, Yates, and Thorndike-Christ 1995; Brandmo, Bråten, and Schewe 2019; Else-Quest et al. 2012; Núñez Peña, Suárez…”
Beyond Working Memory Capacity: Attention Control as the Underlying Mechanism of Cognitive Abilities
Lee, Y., & Engle, R. (2026) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence14020022 · Cited by 8
“Reasoning (Carroll, 1993; Kyllonen & Christal, 1990; Sternberg, 1986), problem-solving (Duncan et al., 2008) have been widely accepted as proxies for gF (Kane et al., 2005; Primi, 2002) along with academic achievement (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Farsides & Woodfield, 2003).”
Determinants of cognitive skills in adulthood: Age cohort patterns
Maehler, D. B., Martin, S., Gorges, J., & Scherer, R. (2024) · International Journal of Lifelong Education · doi:10.1080/02601370.2024.2390070 · Cited by 8
“Various models have been proposed to explain the relation between cognitive and non-cognitive skills (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
Peperkorn, C., & Wegner, C. (2021) · International Journal of Research in Education and Science · doi:10.46328/ijres.2420 · Cited by 5
DERELİOĞLU, S. (2023) · Alanya Akademik Bakış · doi:10.29023/alanyaakademik.1162464 · Cited by 4
Stamate, A. N., Denis, P. L., & Sauvé, G. (2024) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence12030034 · Cited by 4
“Several studies investigated the associations between personality traits, especially those based on the Big Five Model (Costa and McCrae 1992), and cognitive ability, usually measured by intelligence tests or their subtests (Ackerman and Heggestad 1997; Rammstedt et al. 2023; Stanek and Ones 2023).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMatthews, G., Gruszka, A., & Szymura, B. (2010) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1210-7_26 · Cited by 4
“A further step would be to test whether Openness is associated with executive functioning, or whether the Openness – ability association is mediated by motivational and interest factors ( Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997 ).”
BackgroundCross-Disciplinary Discourse to Bridge the Socioemotional and Academic Strands of Development
Teglasi, H. (2010) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2010.508328 · Cited by 4
“Maximal conditions guide responses that have a single correct solution, whereas typical conditions require flexible use of prior knowledge to deal with circumstances that have many potential solutions (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundAn empirical study of working memory, personality, and second language construction learning
Jackson, D. O. (2016) · Bilingual processing and acquisition · doi:10.1075/bpa.3.08jac · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
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