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Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
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In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
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“…personality research to establish underlying traits both between and within basic aspects of personality which is seen as important towards a more holistic understanding of personality (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Digman, 1997; Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002; Ros, Schwartz, & Surkiss, 1999).”
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“Given the coefficient (r = 0.30) between Openness/Intellect and intelligence tests found by prior studies (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; DeYoung, 2011), these variables cannot be viewed as homogenous.”
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“In addition to studies already mentioned, several studies have examined the interrelatedness of MPQ dimensions and vocational interests since Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) proposed their integrated model.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLubinski, D. (2010) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019163 · Cited by 53
“Higher numbers of STEM innovators would allow the United States to compete better in world markets (American Competitiveness Initiative, 2006; Friedman, 2005; National Academy of Sciences, 2005).”
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“…" ndings from the actual studies of such relationships, however, pointed to the existence of the following links: (1) a positive correlation between SAI and Extraversion and Openness, and (2) a negative correlation between SAI and Neuroticism (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Furnham & ! omas, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialStressful life events and openness to experience: Relevance to depression
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“A meta-analysis examining the relationships between personality traits and cognitive abilities found that neuroticism was negatively related to fluid and crystallized abilities (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997).”
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“In line with past studies (as summarized by Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), realistic and investigative interests were moderately positively associated with numerical and spatial abilities, whereas verbal abilities were positively correlated with artistic interests.”
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“…between Openness and presidential performance echoes the positive correlation between Openness and intelligence when assessed by psychometric instruments on contemporary research participants (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Bates & Shieles, 2003; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004; Harris, 2004).”
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“Interests, Gf, and Gc. Ackerman and Heggestad [32] published a meta-analysis estimating construct correlations between different abilities and personality traits as well as interests, also see [22, 33].”
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“Although empirical evidence suggests that personality and intelligence are only modestly related (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997 ; Chamorro‐Premuzic & Furnham, 2005 ), ‘investment’ theories of intelligence, such as Cattell’s ( 1987 ), Ackerman’s ( 1996 ), and Chamorro‐Premuzic and Furnham’s ( 2006a ), highlight the import…”
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“This issue can be resolvedwhenwe refer to the notion of maximal and typical performance introduced by Ackerman (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) in the context of IQ testing.”
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“…or basic cognitive processes, there is a broad consensus that multiple cognitive, personality and motivational variables contribute in an interrelated form to predict individual differences in academic achievement (see, e.g., Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham, 2008).”
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The Genetic Links Between the Big Five Personality Traits and General Interest Domains
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“In line with this interpretation, a meta-analysis of Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) identified links between cognitive abilities and interests as well as between personality traits and interests.”
ResultTrait Complexes, Cognitive Investment, and Domain Knowledge
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Problems with single interest scales: Implications of the general factor
Tracey, T. J. G. (2012) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2012.10.001 · Cited by 41
Briley, D. A., Domiteaux, M., & Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2014) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.03.010 · Cited by 39
A Life-History Model of Human Fitness Indicators
Sefcek, J. A., & Figueredo, A. J. (2010) · Biodemography and Social Biology · doi:10.1080/19485561003709214 · Cited by 40
Conceptualizing learner characteristics in a complex, dynamic world
Dörnyei, Z. (2017) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.48.05dor · Cited by 43
“…specifically Phillip Ackerman and his colleagues’ conceptualization of trait complexes that has been briefly mentioned earlier (e.g., Ackerman, 2005; Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Ackerman & Kanfer, 2004) – by suggesting that examining dispositional attributes individually is often challenging and…”
BackgroundPersonality Openness Predicts Driver Trust in Automated Driving
Wen-min, L., Yao, N., Shi, Y., Nie, W., Zhang, Y., Li, X., Liang, J., Chen, F., & Gao, Z. (2020) · Automotive Innovation · doi:10.1007/s42154-019-00086-w · Cited by 44
“Open individuals may enjoy intellectually challenging activities, because Ackerman and Heggestad [31] found Openness positively correlated with an individual’s typical level of intellectual engagement in activities.”
BackgroundPhenotypic and genetic relationships between vocational interests and personality
Harris, J. A., Vernon, P. A., Johnson, A. M., & Jang, K. L. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.024 · Cited by 43
Personality Measurement and Assessment in Large Panel Surveys
Roberts, B. W., Jackson, J. J., Duckworth, A. L., & Culin, K. R. V. (2011) · Forum for Health Economics & Policy · doi:10.2202/1558-9544.1268 · Cited by 47
“General intelligence is both associated with openness to experience (r = .33, Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) and earnings (Heckman, Stixrud, & Urzua, 2006).”
BackgroundReeve, C. L. L., Meyer, R. D., & Bonaccio, S. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.11.001 · Cited by 41
“We acknowledge that it is possible to find specific occurrences of similarities between our results and those of Ackerman and Heggestad (1997).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFour Lessons Learned From the Person–Situation Debate: A Review and Research Agenda
Stewart, G. L., & Barrick, M. R. (2004) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410610034-12 · Cited by 42
The five factor model of personality: Openness a distinct but related construct
Ferguson, E., & Patterson, F. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00241-9 · Cited by 41
Searching for the “Big Five” in a Greek context: the NEO-FFI under the microscope
Panayiotou, G., Kokkinos, C. M., & Spanoudis, G. C. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.07.005 · Cited by 43
“…confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), has called into question the factor structure of the NEO-FFI with some studies finding fewer than five factors (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Ferguson & Patterson, 1998), others finding as many as eight (Yoshimura, Ono, Nakamura, Nathan, & Suzuki, 2001) and yet…”
BackgroundMethodLehmann, J., Hamm, V., & Seufert, T. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3509 · Cited by 48
Parents’ gender and personality and estimates of their own and their children’s intelligence
Furnham, A. F., & Thomas, C. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.10.011 · Cited by 40
Beauducel, A., Liepmann, D., Felfe, J., & Nettelnstroth, W. (2007) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759.23.2.71 · Cited by 39
Öneş, D. S., Dilchert, S., & Viswesvaran, C. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199732579.013.0010 · Cited by 72
Relationship between Learning Styles and Motivation for Higher Education in EFL Students
Ghaedi, Z., & Jam, B. (2014) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.4304/tpls.4.6.1232-1237 · Cited by 48
“According to Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) individual difference variables such as intelligence, personality, and vocational interests can be used to explain not only variance in academic performance, but also the processes by which traits influence examination outcomes.”
BackgroundMathematical cognition: individual differences in resource allocation
Bornemann, B., Foth, M., Horn, J., Ries, J., Warmüth, E., Wartenburger, I., & van der Meer, E. E. (2010) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-010-0253-x · Cited by 39
“Related psychological concepts (e.g., stimulation seeking or the personality trait ‘‘openness to experience’’) have been shown to be positively correlated with general cognitive abilities ( Ackerman and Heggestad 1997; Moutafi, Furnham and Crump 2003) and even to promote their development (longitudinal study by Raine,…”
BackgroundKarataş, H., Alcı, B., & Aydın, H. (2013) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.5897/err2013.1462 · Cited by 41
Cupani, M., & Pautassi, R. M. (2013) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072712475177 · Cited by 39
“Significant correlations between abilities and both conscientiousness (Moutafi, Furnham, & Paltiel, 2004) and openness/intellect (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) are also expected.”
The profile of the ‘Good Judge’ in HRM: A systematic review and agenda for future research
Kock, F. S. D., Lievens, F., & Born, M. P. (2018) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.09.003 · Cited by 50
Forced-Choice Versus Likert Responses on an Occupational Big Five Questionnaire
Watrin, L., Geiger, M., Spengler, M., & Wilhelm, O. (2019) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000285 · Cited by 45
Schiefer, J., Golle, J., Tibus, M., Herbein, E., Gindele, V., Trautwein, U., & Oschatz, K. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12301 · Cited by 38
The WISC-IV in the Clinical Assessment Context
Prifitera, A., Weiss, L. G., Rolfhus, E. L., & Saklofske, D. H. (2005) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012564931-5/50002-5 · Cited by 41
Instructed faking of the HEXACO reduces facet reliability and involves more Gc than Gf
MacCann, C. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.007 · Cited by 39
Typical Intellectual Engagement and Cognition in Old Age
Dellenbach, M., & Zimprich, D. (2008) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580701338094 · Cited by 40
“The intensity and direction of fluid intelligence investment over a longer period of time is determined by motivation, interests, and personality traits, which, in their interplay, constitute Typical Intellectual Engagement (TIE, Ackerman, 1994 , 1996 ; Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997 ).”
BackgroundHolland Type as a Moderator of Personality–Performance Predictions
Fritzsche, B. A., McIntire, S. A., & Yost, A. P. (2002) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1841 · Cited by 39
“In their review of intelligence, personality, and interest relations, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found that conscientiousness tends to correlate positively with conventional interests and negatively with artistic interests; extraversion correlates with social and enterprising interests; and openness to experience c…”
BackgroundComparing different explanations of the effect of test anxiety on respondents' test scores
Sommer, M., & Arendasy, M. E. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.11.003 · Cited by 43
Does impulsivity influence performance in reasoning?
SCHWEIZER, K. W. (2002) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00209-4 · Cited by 42
Personnel Selection and Employee Performance
Cortina, J. M., & Luchman, J. N. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop212007 · Cited by 41
Does test anxiety induce measurement bias in cognitive ability tests?
Reeve, C. L. L., & Bonaccio, S. (2008) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.11.003 · Cited by 41
Cognitive Sciences for Computing Education
Robins, A. V., Margulieux, L. E., & Morrison, B. B. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.010 · Cited by 44
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
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