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Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
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In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
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Composing Meaningful Lives: Exceptional Women and Men at Age 50
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In the heat of the moment: On the effect of state neuroticism on task performance
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“Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) report a meta-analytic correlation coefficient of À.15 between trait neuroticism and performance in cognitive ability tests.”
BackgroundInfluentialDoes computational thinking correlate with personality?
Román-González, ., Pérez-González, J. C., Moreno-León, J., & Robles, G. (2016) · Ninth International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (TEEM'21) · doi:10.1145/3012430.3012496 · Cited by 19
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BackgroundSupporting Paraeducators through a Collaborative Classroom Support Plan
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BackgroundDivergences between effects on test scores and effects on non-cognitive skills
DeAngelis, C. A. (2019) · Educational Review · doi:10.1080/00131911.2019.1646707 · Cited by 23
“…to capture crystallised intelligence (acquired knowledge), while IQ tests are designed to capture fluid intelligence (that rate at which people learn) (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Carroll, 1993; Kautz, Heckman, Diris, Ter Weel, & Borghans, 2014; Raven, Raven, & Court, 1988; Roberts et al., 2000).”
BackgroundTHE ROLE OF NONCOGNITIVE CONSTRUCTS AND OTHER BACKGROUND VARIABLES IN GRADUATE EDUCATION
Kyllonen, P. C., Walters, A. M., & Kaufman, J. C. (2011) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.2011.tb02248.x · Cited by 18
“Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) have proposed a system of trait”
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Wagner, J. A. (2002) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0191-3085(02)24009-5 · Cited by 18
Szalma, J. L., & Hancock, P. A. (2009) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b10368-12 · Cited by 19
Classification of cognitive performance in bipolar disorder
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“In healthy people, high levels of neuroticism may impair cognitive function (reviewed by Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2004) and increase intra-individual cognitive variability (Robinson et al., 2006).”
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“To date, there is no evidence suggesting a substantial or consistent association of Agreeableness and factors of intelligence (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
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“…& Morales-Vives, 2005) is supported by reports of negative correlation between intelligence and impulsivity in children aged 10 and older (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), secondary school pupils (Vigil-Colet & Morales-Vives, 2005) and middle-aged adults (de Wit, Flory, Acheson, McCloskey, &…”
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Self-citationTaking the Measure of Work Interests: Past, Present, and Future
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“Moreover, the framework is consistent with other work that suggest that abilities, interests, and personality develop interdependently (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
ResultThe Contribution of Personality and Intelligence Toward Cognitive Competences in Higher Education
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“Despite this interdependence between personality and cognition (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham, 2006), the two constructs were not always considered together as predictors of cognitive assessment scores, but often as predictors of one another (e.”
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“A key influence on performance tasks, the clarity of response expectations (e.g., Ackerman, 1994; Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002), is also the primary distinction between tests of ability and personality (e.g., Cronbach, 1960).”
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Socio-emotional and Self-management Variables in Learning and Assessment
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Gender differences on general knowledge tests: Are they due to Differential Item Functioning?
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“For example, highly conscientious people are more likely to prefer conventional jobs, and individuals higher in extraversion prefer, and obtain, more social jobs (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gottfredson et al., 1993).”
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“However, while fluid intelligence and curiosity were, in line with the literature, significantly related (Ackerman and Heggestad 1997), epistemic behavior as a behavioral indicator of environmental enrichment was, at odds with the literature, unrelated to fluid intelligence (Vinkhuyzen et al. 2012).”
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“…most consistent finding regarding the relation between intelligence and personality is that intelligence is negatively correlated with neuroticism (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Furnham et al., 1998; Moutafi et al., 2003) and positively correlated with openness to experience (Austin et al., 2002;…”
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“The relationship between personality and cognitive ability has been widely explored in the psychological literature (e.g. Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner &Matthews, 2000).”
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The Big-5 Personality and Counterproductive Behaviours
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“For example, extraverted individuals appear to prefer social or enterprising jobs (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), and people tend to enter relationships with partners who favor their existing personality traits (Botwin et al., 1997).”
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“It is apparent in student course evaluations (Marsh 1987; Olivares 2001), choice of specific educational institutions (Holland 1997), selection or avoidance of particular courses (Ackerman and Heggestad 1997) and teaching styles (Zhang 2004) that students hold strong views about their lecturers.”
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“These profiles consist of individual constellations of abilities, interests and values, motivational variables, or self-concepts that predict further talent development across a wide range of performance levels, including exceptional performance (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundDoes Student Employment Deteriorate Academic Performance? The Case of Slovenia
Kosi, T., Nastav, B., & Šušteršič, J. (2014) · Revija za socijalnu politiku · doi:10.3935/rsp.v20i3.1129 · Cited by 16
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“There is some evidence in literature on the stable relationships between vocational interests and intelligence (cf. Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe predictors of academic interest: fluid intelligence, openness, and their interaction
Zhang, J., Dong, Z., & Yang, X. (2018) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2018.1514103 · Cited by 17
“Early meta-analyses demonstrated that Openness was significantly related to investigative, artistic, and social interests, with moderate to substantial effect sizes (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Barrick, Mount, & Gupta, 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLavrijsen, J., Tracey, T., Verachtert, P., Vroede, T. D., Soenens, B., & Verschueren, K. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110685 · Cited by 17
It's about time: Emphasizing temporal dynamics in dynamic personality regulation
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“In contrast, traits and other individual differences, such as motives (Atkinson & Raynor, 1974) and interests (Ackerman, 1997), cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), and even physical variables (e.g., weight, Sullivan et al., 2007) are relatively stable, though they can change over time…”
BackgroundArmstrong, P. I., & Vogel, D. L. (2010) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019177 · Cited by 16
Creative Genius as a Personality Phenomenon: Definitions, Methods, Findings, and Issues
Simonton, D. K. (2012) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00455.x · Cited by 16
Context Matters, but How Much? Latent state–trait analysis of cognitive ability assessments
Hermes, M., & Stelling, D. (2016) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12147 · Cited by 16
Structural correlates of the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala and personality in female adolescents
Delaparte, L., Bartlett, E. A., Grazioplene, R. G., Perlman, G., Gardus, J. D., DeLorenzo, C., Klein, D. N., & Kotov, R. (2019) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13376 · Cited by 16
“There is well-established evidence that Openness to experience and intelligence quotient (IQ) are highly correlated (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundSchulze, R., & Roberts, R. D. (2006) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0044-3409.214.3.133 · Cited by 16
Miklewska, A., Kaczmarek, M. C., & Strelau, J. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.06.030 · Cited by 16
Activity Interests and Holland's Riasec System in Older Adults
Kerby, D. S., & Ragan, K. M. (2002) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/w0g9-nbyn-h6wc-ltdn · Cited by 16
“Holland’s RIASEC system has generated a great deal of research support (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Farh, Leong, & Law, 1998; Hyland & Muchinsky, 1991; Ryan, Tracey, & Rounds, 1996; Tracey & Rounds, 1993).”
Zeidner, M. (2004) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b0-12-657410-3/00958-2 · Cited by 16
Nature, Importance, and Assessment of Needs and Values
Rounds, J., & Leuty, M. E. (2020) · doi:10.1002/9781394258994.ch16 · Cited by 16
Etzel, J. M., Holland, J., & Nagy, G. (2020) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103520 · Cited by 16
Processing speed mediates the development of tech tilt and academic tilt in adolescence
Coyle, T. R. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101648 · Cited by 17
Evidence of construct validity of the interest scales on the Campbell Interest and Skill Survey
Sullivan, B. A., & Hansen, J. C. (2003) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0001-8791(03)00099-x · Cited by 15
Relações entre interesses, personalidade e habilidades cognitivas: um estudo com adolescentes
Nunes, M. F. O., & Noronha, A. P. P. (2009) · Psico-USF · doi:10.1590/s1413-82712009000200002 · Cited by 15
The distortion of beliefs in the face of uncertainty
Sjöberg, L. (2007) · International Journal of Management and Decision Making · doi:10.1504/ijmdm.2007.012148 · Cited by 15
“Interest is a crucial factor in learning, at least if there is goal to promote creativity (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Sjöberg, 1997; Sjöberg and Dahlstrand, 1987).”
BackgroundGray, G., McGuinness, C., & Owende, P. M. O. (2016) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6300-591-3_10 · Cited by 16
Kırkağaç, Ş., & Öz, H. (2017) · International online journal of education and teaching · Cited by 15
The relations between cognitive ability and personality: Convergent results across measures
Carretta, T. R., & Ree, M. J. (2018) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12224 · Cited by 15
The Athletic Intelligence Quotient and Performance in the National Football League
Bowman, J. K., Boone, R. T., Zaichkowsky, L. D., Goldman, S., & Auerbach, A. (2020) · Sports and Exercise Medicine - Open Journal · doi:10.17140/semoj-6-180 · Cited by 16
The Athletic Intelligence Quotient and Performance Outcomes in Professional Baseball
Bowman, J. K., Boone, R. T., Goldman, S., & Auerbach, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.629827 · Cited by 17
Lönnqvist, J., Vainikainen, M., & Verkasalo, M. (2011) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.849 · Cited by 15
“…question of whether the external correlates of personality tests result from their common associations with cognitive abilities (Mischel, 1968)—reviews of the empirical evidence have suggested only weak relations between personality and cognitive ability (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Eysenck, 1994).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTerry, D. P., Puente, A. N., Brown, C. L., Faraco, C. C., & Miller, L. S. (2013) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2013.795932 · Cited by 16
“Meta-analytic methods show correlations between Openness and both fluid and crystallized intelligence above .30 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
MethodIndividuals and environments: Linking ability and skill ratings with interests.
Anthoney, S. F., & Armstrong, P. I. (2010) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018067 · Cited by 15
“Although Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) represented their trait complexes as integrating interests, personality, and abilities using Holland’s (1997) RIASEC structure, their analyses did not explicitly test the structure that underlies the Holland model (Armstrong et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe New C Standard An Economic and Cultural Commentary
Jones, D. M. (2004) · Cited by 16
Adult training in the digital age
Bode, E., & Gold, R. (2018) · Economics · doi:10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2018-36 · Cited by 15
Computing for Other Disciplines
Guzdial, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.020 · Cited by 20
Engineering Education Research
Loui, M. C., & Borrego, M. J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108654555.012 · Cited by 17
Personality Characteristics as Predictors of Academic Performance of Secondary School Students
Akomolafe, M. J. (2013) · Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences · Cited by 15
Academic abilities, education and performance in the stock market
Talpsepp, T., Liivamägi, K., & Vaarmets, T. (2020) · Journal of Banking & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2020.105848 · Cited by 19
Tracey, T. J. G., & Rohlfing, J. E. (2010) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00631.x · Cited by 15
“Openness has been found to correlate positively with verbal ability (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
BackgroundSatoshi Kanazawa, A. (2008) · Biodemography and Social Biology · doi:10.1080/19485565.2008.9989142 · Cited by 15
“In addition, the Hypothesis can potentially explain why general intelligence is positively correlated with openness to experience (i.e. novelty) across individuals (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2006).”
BackgroundFerguson, E., & Frankis, J. S. (2001) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1300/j082v41n02_07 · Cited by 15
“…literature, including (1) occupational psychology (Ferguson, Kerrin, & Patterson, 1997), (2) abilities and personality research (see Ackerman, 1997; Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), (3) attribution theory (Michela, Peplau, & Weeks, 1982), and (4) implicit theories of personality (Ferguson & Cox, 1996).”
Dennis, M. J., Sternberg, R. J., & Beatty, P. (2000) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(99)00038-0 · Cited by 14
Beauty is in the Eye of the Employer: Labor Market Discrimination of AccountantsPreprint
Kantor, J., Shapir, O. M., & Shtudiner, Z. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2655407 · Cited by 15
Ability and non-ability traits in chess skill
Blanch, À., & Llaveria, A. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110909 · Cited by 15
Mert, İ. S., & Köksal, K. (2022) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2022.2057788 · Cited by 18
“Because of the overlapping relationships of personality traits (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), we entered all personality traits together in the second step of hierarchical regression analysis using the least-squares method.”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
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