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Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits
Abstract
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence-personality and intelligence-interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality-intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest-intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
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In the citing paper
“Openness-related traits are widely acknowledged correlates of cognitive abilities (17).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Second, investment of intelligence into acquired knowledge (i.e., invested abilities) was found to require a hungry mind (i.e., openness traits) and interest in the domain of knowledge to be acquired (17, 19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“A few meta-analyses have summarized available research (e.g., refs. 17–21).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Although considerable research has examined the correlates and consequences of cognitive abilities and personality traits independently, much less is known about their connections.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“This investment process underpins the emergence of knowledge acquisition trait complexes (17) and intellectual engagement (19).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Thus, invested abilities displayed larger relations with openness traits, especially its intellect, non traditional,* need for cognition, and openness to ideas facets.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“First, cognitive abilities were moderately associated with a variety of openness-related traits (17, 19) but appeared to have weak relations with other personality characteristics (18).”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In contrast to previous meta-analyses that reported mostly null effects for extraversion–abilities relations (17, 18), our larger dataset and more nuanced construct structures revealed previously unacknowledged relations.”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Overall, these intellect-related traits’ relations were in line with previous meta-analytic estimates (17, 19) (mean ρ^ = .21, mean 95% CI [.13, .29])”
From Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“Openness to Experience, however, is the only Big Five factor with moderate associations with general intelligence ( 0.33 r in a meta-analysis by Ackerman and Heggestad [1997])”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad [1997]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) found generally positive relationships with extraversion across ten intelligence traits.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Results from a meta-analysis between personality and intelligence conducted by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997), however, found relatively consistent modest positive relations between extraversion and intelligence.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Their findings, shown in Table 2, indicate a positive relationship of the estimated effect sizes for extraversion across the ability categories ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“The pervasive decrease in the estimated effect sizes in the current study compared to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results provides initial support for this hypothesis.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Consistent with past research (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Zeidner and Matthews, 2000; Zeidner, 1995), all of the estimated effect sizes were close to zero.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“A closer comparison with the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) results reveals that most of the estimated effect sizes from the current study are slightly smaller (compare Table 2 and Table 9).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Exclusion criteria were designed to retain studies useful in the present meta-analysis and consistent with the studies used in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis to avoid a selection confound.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“For example, about 27 additional studies (an average increase of 60%) were located beyond those located in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis for the three most studied ability-personality combinations (extraversion crossed with crystallized intelligence, general intelligence, and fluid intelligence).”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Similar to the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, the extraversion-intelligence relationship was slightly positive, and different patterns of relationships were found for social closeness and social potency.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Almost universally, the estimated effects sizes in the current study were less than the estimated effect sizes in the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) meta-analysis, and almost universally, the correlations of the extraversion-intelligence association and date of publication for the ability-personality categories were negative.”
From Extraversion and intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation (2005) · cites this paper as Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)
In the citing paper
“Also, vocational interests are related to cognitive abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), self-efficacy beliefs (Rottinghaus et al., 2003), values and goals (Stoll et al., 2020).”
From The German O*NET Interest Profiler Short Form (2023) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“All tests of intelligence or cognitive aptitude are optimal performance assessments, whereas measures of thinking dispositions are often assessed under typical performance conditions (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996;Norris & Ennis, 1989;Perkins, 1995;Sternberg, 2003;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000).”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
In the citing paper
“Moreover, because Openness is positively correlated with a broad range of cognitive abilities, including vocabulary (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004), it is reasonable to suppose that highly Open individuals use “big words” more often, effectively resulting in strong positive correlations for many individual words (but conversely, producing negative correlations for”
From Personality in 100,000 Words: A large-scale analysis of personality and word use among bloggers (2010) · cites this paper as Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997
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“The meta-analytic research by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) reported a negative association between general intelligence and general aggression as a personality trait (effect size = .”
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“…suggest that one avenue may constitute active selection effects where careers fit a person’s personality: Extraverted individuals, for example, have been shown to more likely choose enterprising jobs (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) and assume leadership roles (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002).”
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“nant validity (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997).”
Personality traits and abilities as predictors of academic achievement
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“At the empirical level, there are significant correlations between Openness and all domains of crystallized intelligence ( Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997 ).”
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“Finally, intellectual ability is not generally predictive of how people respond to provocations or stressors (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
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“Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) reported a meta-analytic correlation of r=− .33 between general intelligence tests and test anxiety while Hembree (1988) reported a meta-analytic correlation of r=− .23.”
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“Within both differential and educational psychology there is a vast literature on preferences for specific educational institutions (Furnham, 2005), courses ( Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997 ), and teaching styles (Zhang, 2004), and a great deal of vocational psychology focuses on the premise that students and scholars sel…”
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“The correlation between test anxiety scores and intelligence tests scores is substantial: r= −.23 (Hembree, 1988) or r= −.33 ( Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997 ).”
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“The homophily effect for Openness was also independent of Cognitive ability, an attribute that is correlated with Openness (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Moutafi et al., 2003; Rammstedt et al., 2016).”
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“…personality traits model, which has consistently been used to demonstrate and refer to the connection between intelligence and individual factors (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; DeYoung, 2011; Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1981; Limont et al, 2014; Mammadov, 2018; McCrae & Costa, 2008; McCrae et al.,…”
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“Research by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) has furthered understanding of how people may vary on traits in a somewhat predictable fashion by providing evidence of four specific trait complexes, given their analysis and review of existing data.”
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“People systematically differ in their interests and engagement in intellectual activities (Ackerman, 1997, Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
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“The influence of personality traits — especially, the Big Five — on different types of intelligence has received particular attention from social psychologists (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2014; DeYoung, 2020; Von Stumm & Ackerman, 2013).”
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“…by cognitive-style characteristics, which not only exhibit significant linkages with cognitive ability but are typically more strongly linked to verbal than nonverbal ability (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Bors, Vigneau, & Lalande, 2006; DeYoung, Quilty, Peterson, & Gray, 2014; Kardash & Noel, 2000).”
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“It has also been found to be a good predictor of scholastic performance (Poropat, 2009) and the effect has often been interpreted in terms of its correlation with cognitive ability (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997).”
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“Meta-analytic correlations involving programming proficiency were derived in this study, whereas correlations between personality and general mental abilities were substituted from previous meta-analyses (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Gnambs, 2013).”
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Beliefs about the relationships between personality and intelligence
Mõttus, R., Allïk, J., Konstabel, K., Kangro, E., & Pullmann, H. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.05.029 · Cited by 23
“Numerous empirical studies have typically found no or only modest correlations between measures of psychometric intelligence and self- or other-rated personality traits (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Allik, Laidra, Realo, & Pullmann, 2004; Chamorro-Premuzic, Moutafi, & Furnham, 2005).”
BackgroundMoral Reasoning and Personality Traits
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Alexander, P. A. (2000) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x029002028 · Cited by 23
Convergence of Specific Factors in Vocational Interests and Personality
Staggs, G. D., Larson, L. M., & Borgen, F. H. (2003) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072703254499 · Cited by 23
“Questions regarding the link between vocational interests and personality have received increasing attention in the past 15 years (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Borgen, 1986, 1999; Prediger, 1999; Spokane & Decker, 1999).”
BackgroundThe Rationality of Educating for Wisdom
Stanovich, K. E. (2001) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3604_3 · Cited by 22
“However, Sternberg has been among a handful of investigators (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Keating, 1990; Moshman, 1994; Perkins, 1995; Sternberg & Ruzgis, 1994) who have emphasized such concepts—for example, thinking dispositions (see Stanovich & West, 1997; Sternberg, 1997).”
BackgroundCollege Wage Premium and College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) in Korea
임슬기, & Nam, S.-I. (2019) · Journal of Vocational Education & Training · doi:10.36907/krivet.2019.22.2.57 · Cited by 22
Inequality in Personality Over the Life Cycle
Gensowski, M., Gørtz, M., & Schurer, S. (2020) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2021.01.018 · Cited by 23
“Openness to Experience is linked to intellectual curiosity, creativity and intelligence (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Aitken Harris, 2004; Schretlen et al., 2010), and thus is a critical component in the human capital accumulation process (Almlund et al.”
BackgroundKajonius, P., & Dåderman, A. M. (2014) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v10i1.672 · Cited by 22
“This view is partly based on the observation that traits develop early in childhood (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; McCrae & Costa, Europe's Journal of Psychology 2014, Vol. 10(1), 104–117 doi:10.5964/ejop.v10i1.”
BackgroundInfluentialAdolescent and Adult Intellectual Development
Ackerman, P. L. (2014) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721414534960 · Cited by 22
“…studies and a meta-analysis on the relations between non-ability traits (e.g., interests, personality, motivation) and intellectual abilities (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997)— converged in a theoretical framework that attempted to explain and predict patterns of the acquisition of and the…”
BackgroundSelf-citationAckerman, P. L., & Lohman, D. F. (2003) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008043793-4/50052-0 · Cited by 21
Self-citationTheory Versus Reality: Evaluation of g in the Workplace
Tenopyr, M. L. (2002) · Human Performance · doi:10.1080/08959285.2002.9668086 · Cited by 25
Pérez, E., Cupani, M., & Ayllón, S. (2005) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 22
The Integration of Interests, Aptitudes, and Personality Traits: A Test of Lowman's Matrix
Carson, A. D. (1998) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/106907279800600106 · Cited by 22
Ferguson, E. (1999) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.1999.27.6.545 · Cited by 22
Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice and Adjustment
Nauta, M. M. (2020) · doi:10.1002/9781394258994.ch3 · Cited by 22
Gfrörer, T., Stoll, G., Rieger, S., Trautwein, U., & Nagengast, B. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211035630 · Cited by 18
From overexcitabilities to openness: Informing gifted education with psychological science
Vuyk, M. A., Kerr, B. A., & Krieshok, T. S. (2016) · Gifted and Talented International · doi:10.1080/15332276.2016.1220796 · Cited by 22
“…& McKay, 2013; Wolfradt & Pretz, 2001; Yakmaci-Guzel & Akarsu, 2006) and moderate correlations with intelligence in samples of all ability levels (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Austin et al., 2002; Cross et al., 2007; Gignac et al., 2004; Harris, 2004; Moutafi et al., 2006; Sak, 2004; Zeidner &…”
BackgroundPrediction of school achievement through a multi-factorial approach – The unique role of chronotype
Rahafar, A., Randler, C., Vollmer, C., & Kasaeian, A. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.03.008 · Cited by 19
Convergence of Personality Frameworks Within Vocational Psychology
Whiston, S. C., & Rose, C. S. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203143209-13 · Cited by 21
White, T. L., Gonsalves, M. A., Cohen, R. A., Harris, A. D., Monnig, M. A., Walsh, E. G., Nitenson, A. Z., Porges, E. C., Lamb, D. G., Woods, A. J., et al. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117509 · Cited by 18
“54) and low to nearzero correlations with fluid and crystallized cognition (Ackerman and Heggestad, 1997; Tellegen et al., 1988).”
Estudo correlacional do inventário de busca auto dirigida (self-directed search) com o IFP
Primi, R., Moggi, M. A., & Casellato, É. O. (2004) · Psicologia Escolar e Educacional · doi:10.1590/s1413-85572004000100006 · Cited by 21
Mitrofana, N., & Iona, A. (2013) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.264 · Cited by 21
“Thus, the meta-analytical study coordinated by Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) identify a positive relation between Openness and academic performance, although the magnitude of the correlation is average.”
Making use of professional development: Employee interests and motivational goal orientations
Johnson, V. A., & Beehr, T. A. (2013) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2013.12.003 · Cited by 21
Selection into medical education and training
Patterson, F., Ferguson, E., & Knight, A. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118472361.ch28 · Cited by 22
The Cattell‐Horn‐Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities
Flanagan, D. P. (2008) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470373699.speced0381 · Cited by 22
Interest–Ability Profiles: An Integrative Approach to Knowledge Acquisition
Hyland, W. E., Hoff, K. A., & Rounds, J. (2022) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence10030043 · Cited by 21
“The results did, however, yield two profiles matching a trait complex not expected to replicate: the clerical/conventional complex (Ackerman and Heggestad 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLavrijsen, J., Preckel, F., & Verschueren, K. (2023) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102363 · Cited by 26
Personality and preference for evaluation methods: A study among business administration students
Lakhal, S., Sévigny, S., & Frénette, É. (2013) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2013.02.002 · Cited by 20
Armstrong, P. I., & Rounds, J. (2010) · The Career Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2010.tb00058.x · Cited by 20
Individual differences in the effectiveness of text cohesion for science text comprehension
Hall, S. S., Basran, J. K., Paterson, K. B., Kowalski, R., Filik, R., & Maltby, J. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.10.014 · Cited by 22
Wingate, T. G., & Tomes, J. L. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.02.007 · Cited by 19
Stoll, G., & Trautwein, U. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804674-6.00025-9 · Cited by 23
White, R. M., & Shin, T. S. (2017) · Multicultural Education Review · doi:10.1080/2005615x.2016.1276670 · Cited by 33
“…parameter with high scores relating to (1) an expressed desire to engage and understand the world, (2) an interest in a wide variety of things, (3) a preference for a complete understanding of a complex problem and (4) a general need to know (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Goff & Ackerman, 1992).”
BackgroundWhy do personality traits predict scholastic performance? A three-wave longitudinal study
Zhang, J., & Ziegler, M. D. (2018) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2018.04.006 · Cited by 22
Metadata
- Authors
- Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 219-245
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2093371949
- Semantic Scholar
- de9d16d02fc6cd75679a94f29181ba274bc8e3c5
- Cited by
- 1,829
- References
- 241
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 118 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 79 · 2017: 83 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 79 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 93
- FWCI
- 27.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- intelligence, personality, career interest, social characteristics
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aspirations, Psychological, Career Choice, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motivation, Personality, Personality Development
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