Cultural variation: Considerations and implications.

Cultural differences in psychological functioning stem, in part, from the different physical and social circumstances faced by different groups.

“It is of course also true that cultural differences in psychological functioning stem, in part, from the different physical and social circumstances faced by different groups (Cohen, 2001; Forde, 1934).”

A group's physical environment may influence or constrain a group's economic choices, and those choices, in turn, influence the emergence of social structures.

“Current theory also recognizes that a group's physical envi- ronment may influence or constrain a group's economic choices, and those choices, in turn, influence the emergence of social structures (Cohen, 2001; J.Q. Wilson, 1993).”

The demands of a group's physical environment may directly influence the nature of the social structure that emerges.

“The demands of a group's physical environment may directly influence the nature of the social structure that emerges (Cohen, 2001).”

Other violent cultures, such as those in the inner city, appear to operate under an all-defect strategy, in which belligerence and toughness are used to reduce threats to the self.

“Other violent cultures, such as those in the inner city, appear to operate under an all-defect strategy, in which belligerence and toughness are used to reduce threats to the self (Cohen, 2001).”

Initial social conditions, developed partly in response to initial ecological circumstances, have a disproportionate influence on subsequent social conditions, often for centuries.

“Cohen (2001) argued persuasively that initial social conditions, developed partly in response to initial ecological circumstances, have a dispropor- tionate influence on subsequent social conditions, often for centuries (see also Nisbett, 1993; Nisbett & Cohen, 1996).”

These concepts have proven helpful in understanding how similar social contexts can produce very different cultural norms.

“These concepts have proven helpful in understanding how similar social contexts can produce very different cultural norms (Cohen, 2001).”

A cultural group's solution to a particular environmental challenge is unlikely to be the optimal one in an abstract sense; instead, it is likely to be an adaptation constrained, shaped, or facilitated by the current social structure.

“A cultural group's solution to a particular environmental challenge is unlikely to be the op- timal one in an abstract sense; instead, it is likely to be an ad- aptation constrained, shaped, or facilitated by the current social structure (itself perhaps, in part, an adaptation to some prior ecological circumstance; Cohen, 2001; Forde, 1934).”

Mathematical models of the operation of these processes, together with the human capacity to innovate and synthesize, suggest that they may be responsible for the rapid rate at which cultural norms change.

“Mathematical models of the oper- ation of these processes, together with the human capacity to innovate and synthesize, suggest that they may be responsible for the rapid rate at which cultural norms change (Boyd & Richerson, 1985; Cohen, 2001; Richerson & Boyd, 2001).”

Cohen (2001) has integrated much of this work to describe how these and other processes can produce different cultural norms in similar circumstances, as well as significant cultural change.

“Cohen (2001) has integrated much of this work to describe how these and other processes can produce different cultural norms in similar circumstances, as well as significant cultural change.”