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A model of dual attitudes.
Abstract
When an attitude changes from A1 to A2, what happens to A1? Most theories assume, at least implicitly, that the new attitude replaces the former one. The authors argue that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. Dual attitudes are defined as different evaluations of the same attitude object: an automatic, implicit attitude and an explicit attitude. The attitude that people endorse depends on whether they have the cognitive capacity to retrieve the explicit attitude and whether this overrides their implicit attitude. A number of literatures consistent with these hypotheses are reviewed, and the implications of the dual-attitude model for attitude theory and measurement are discussed. For example, by including only explicit measures, previous studies may have exaggerated the ease with which people change their attitudes. Even if an explicit attitude changes, an implicit attitude can remain the same.
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“More generally, there are many cases where two cognitive states with opposite content do not lead to any negative affect—a topic widely discussed both in philosophy and in psychology.”
From Conative Dissonance (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000
In the citing paper
“even consciously egalitarian people may hold negative ethnic and racial stereotypes and attitudes,26–31 of which they may not be fully conscious.”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“(2) application of such stereotypes frequently occurs outside conscious awareness26–31”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“as unconscious biases are “habits of mind”,31,45 learned over time through repeated personal experiences and cultural socialization, they are highly resistant to change.46”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
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Levy, N. (2015) · Noûs · doi:10.1111/nous.12074 · Cited by 226
Mutual influence of implicit and explicit attitudes
Whitfield, M., & Jordan, C. H. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.006 · Cited by 94
Marsh, K. L., Johnson, B. T., & Scott‐Sheldon, L. A. J. (2001) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//0949-3946.48.2.161 · Cited by 94
History of Social Psychology: Insights, Challenges, and Contributions to Theory and Application
Ross, L. D., Lepper, M. R., & Ward, A. C. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001001 · Cited by 97
“Zajonc (1969) had explored both social facilitation and the effects of “mere exposure” on liking using a number of different species.”
BackgroundYoung Children in Intractable Conflicts
Nasie, M., Diamond, A. H., & Bar‐Tal, D. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868315607800 · Cited by 96
Hofmann, W., Gschwendner, T., Castelli, L., & Schmitt, M. (2008) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207084847 · Cited by 92
Exploring the Neural Correlates of Social Stereotyping
Susanne Quadflieg, A., Turk, D. J., Waiter, G. D., Mitchell, J. P., Jenkins, A. C., & Macrae, C. N. (2008) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21091 · Cited by 98
“What this suggests is that responding stereotypically may be an inherently evaluative process ( Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ), especially for individuals who hold strong stereotypic beliefs about the sexes.”
BackgroundAlbarracín, D., & Vargas, P. T. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001011 · Cited by 94
Workplace Ageism: Discovering Hidden Bias
Malinen, S. K., & Johnston, L. C. (2013) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2013.808111 · Cited by 109
“Implicit attitudes are assumed to have developed over an individual’s lifetime, and they are consequently more difficult to change than their explicit counterparts (Banaji, 2001; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; T. D. Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialImplicit and explicit measures of alcohol and smoking cognitions.
McCarthy, D. M., & Thompsen, D. M. (2006) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.20.4.436 · Cited by 91
Murray, S., Pinkus, R. T., Holmes, J. G., Harris, B., Gomillion, S., Aloni, M., Derrick, J. L., & Leder, S. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023233 · Cited by 98
Racial Discrimination by Low-Prejudiced Whites
Vanman, E. J., Saltz, J. L., Nathan, L. R., & Warren, J. A. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00746.x · Cited by 91
Decision-making and the frontal lobes
Volz, K. G., Schubotz, R. I., & von Cramon, D. Y. (2006) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/01.wco.0000236621.83872.71 · Cited by 96
Understanding Implicit Bias: Putting the Criticism into Perspective
Brownstein, M., Madva, A., & Gawronski, B. (2020) · Pacific philosophical quarterly · doi:10.1111/papq.12302 · Cited by 98
“…core of many highly cited theories, including the MODE model (‘motivation and opportunity as determinants’; Fazio and Towles-Schwen 1999), aversive racism theory (Dovidio and Gaertner 2004), the dual-attitude model (Wilson et al. 2000), and the reflective-impulsive model (Strack and Deutsch 2004).”
BackgroundAnxiety and oscillatory responses to emotional facial expressions
Knyazev, G. G., Bocharov, A. V., Levin, E. A., Savostyanov, A. N., & Slobodskoj‐Plusnin, J. Y. (2008) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.06.108 · Cited by 95
Measures of Intergroup Contact
Lolliot, S., Fell, B. F., Schmid, K., Wölfer, R., Swart, H., Voci, A., Christ, O., New, R., & Hewstone, M. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386915-9.00023-1 · Cited by 97
More than meets the eye: The influence of implicit and explicit self‐esteem on materialism
Park, J. K., & John, D. R. (2011) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2010.09.001 · Cited by 89
“As we discussed earlier, retrieving explicit self-esteem from memory requires cognitive capacity and motivation, whereas implicit self-esteem is activated automatically (Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2000
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 101-126
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2085169214
- Cited by
- 2,112
- References
- 184
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 128 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 165.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service (41841)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, attitude change, attitude measurement, attitude theory
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Motivation, Object Attachment, Prejudice
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