A model of dual attitudes.

“... on encountering a Black person” and some portion who “have no qualms about their experiencing such negativity or about expressing it,” (Fazio, et al, 1995, 1025) many American Whites seem to be what Jack Dovidio calls “aversive racists” – people who consciously endorse egalitarian values, but who have negative fee…”

“A second approach that has captured the attention of social psychologists more recently argues that people can hold separate explicit (conscious, deliberative) and implicit (unconscious, automatic) attitudes (e.g., Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ) which can take on different values.”

“Even if these factors interact with attitudes (Wilson, Lindset and Schooler, 2000), attitudes themselves are best thought of as evaluative judgement formed by the person (Ajzen, 2001; Crano and Prislin, 2006).”

“…findings suggest that the activation and impact of old (automatic–implicit) and new (deliberative– explicit) attitudes on judgment are not necessarily an either–or phenomenon, as emphasized in much prior research (see reviews by Dovidio et al., 2001; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“These latter options, both of which are versions of what we call the two sets of books hypothesis, are broadly consonant with “dual attitude” and “dual processing” theories that have been proposed for a number of other psychological capacities (Wilson et al., 2000; Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Stanovich, 1999).”

“These biases occur across educational and socioeconomic levels because they represent overlearned cultural associations(61) with a strong affective basis(62) that are difficult to completely overwrite with more recent experiences or acquired values.(63) Implicit and explicit biases, which are only weakly related,(50,5…”

“Although the similarities and differences between implicit and explicit self-esteem have yet to be fully examined, dual-process models provide a useful framework for considering both forms of self-esteem (e.g., Epstein, 1994; Epstein & Morling, 1995; Smith & DeCoster, 2001; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”

“Implicit attitudes can be assessed on either affective dimensions (e.g., evaluations) or cognitive dimensions (e.g., stereotypes; see Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; T. D. Wilson et al., 2000).”

“Traditional dual attitude models (e.g., Devine, 1989; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Rydell & McConnell, 2006; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ) suggest that following automatic attitude activation, behavior is determined by this automatic attitude unless controlled processing inhibits the automatic attitude and replaces…”

“We propose that implicit– explicit attitude discrepancies (e.g., Petty, Tormala, Brin ˜ol, & Jarvis, 2006; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ) might contribute to clarity but not correctness.”

“This argument is based on the potential co-existence of opposing attitudes in people’s minds (states of apathy or ambivalence), which may translate into conflicting intended behaviors and represent internal struggles (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1994; Cacioppo et al, 1999; Wilson et al, 2000; Ajzen, 2001).”

“Pertaining to the nature of issues being assessed, implicit attitudes can be highly predictive of explicit attitudes, but implicit attitudes can also account for variance that is unexplained by explicit attitudes when researchers assess socially sensitive subjects such as race or gender (Cunningham et al. 2004b, Devin…”

“With respect to the discrepancy of IAT scores and self-reports, the IAT's declared purpose is to capture implicit associative structures revealing latent ethnic attitudes that may not be accessible in explicit measures, such as interviews and questionnaires, which are typically biased towards social desirability or po…”

“... behavior by applying intuitive attributional theories (“ I guess I did that because . . .” ). Research since that time has demonstrated that much of human behavior reflects consciously unreportable (implicit) rather than reportable (explicit) processes, and that this applies to virtually every area of psychologica…”

“Devine (1989) and Wilson et al. (2000) considered implicit attitudes to be habitual, requiring sustained motivation and effort to be shifted.”

“These studies also suggest that people may simultaneously have two attitudes about a social group: one that is automatically activated and one that may only activate with conscious deliberation (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”

“…that have their roots in long-term socialization experiences (e.g., Conner & Feldman-Barrett, 2005; DeHart et al., 2006; Dovidio et al., 2001; Gregg et al., 2006; Jordan et al., 2003; Petty et al., 2006; Rudman, 2004; Rydell & McConnell, 2006; Sinclair et al., 2005; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“In contrast, other researchers have claimed that we often hold two attitudes toward the same object (i.e., an explicit and an implicit attitude), and that direct and indirect measures are differentially sensitive in assessing these two types of attitudes (e.g., Wilson et al., 2000).”

“…factors may have contributed to the low implicit– explicit correlation obtained in Experiment 3, such as balancing of compatibility order (Asendorpf et al., 2002), and differences in the constructs tapped by implicit and explicit measures (Bosson et al., 2000; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000).”

“But why do implicit and explicit measures diverge? One view is that the two kinds of measures reflect separate attitude representations (Devine, 1989; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”

“However, implicit evaluations were generally unaVected by dissonance manipulations (see also Wilson et al., 2000 ).”

“However, the current results are consistent with models that envision implicit and explicit attitudes as products of different underlying evaluative systems and predict that people can simultaneously hold different implicit and explicit attitudes about an object (Wilson et al., 2000).”

“…(e.g. Jacoby 1991; Wixted 2007), persuasion (Chen & Chaiken 1999; Petty & Wegener 1999), attitudes (e.g. Devine 1989; Greenwald & Banaji 1995; Wilson et al. 2000; Gawronski & Bodenhausen 2006), social behaviour (e.g. Strack & Deutsch 2004), and judgement and decision making (e.g. Sloman…”

“When people realize they have acted in a biased manner, they often attempt to correct for that bias (Wegener & Petty, 1995; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ); liberal Whites who learn that decisions they have made may unfairly target Blacks, for example, are likely to attempt to revise those decisions (Tetlock, Kris…”

“findings that face recognition following verbalization takes longer (Brown and LloydJones, in press) and that the disruptive effects of verbalization are attenuated when participants are forced to make quick recognition decisions (Schooler and EngstlerSchooler, 1990; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“In contrast, imagined contact may affect implicit out-group attitudes as a direct consequence of exposure, consistent with contemporary dual models of attitude change (e.g. Fazio & Olson, 2003; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“Previous conceptualizations of implicit attitudes in social cognition research emphasized the aspects of stability and associative learning (e.g., De Houwer, Thomas, & Baeyens, 2001; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“This is related to a more fundamental theoretical development, as described by the social psychologists Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler (2000): In recent years, a different view of attitudes has emerged.”

“Together, these findings stand in contrast to the claim that implicit measures reflect early experiences, whereas explicit measures reflect recent experiences (e.g., Petty et al., 2006; Rudman, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“…self-report (explicit) and response latency (implicit) measures of attitudes can tap into different evaluations that predict behaviors in different situations (spontaneous vs. deliberative; see also Carlston & Skowronski, 1986; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, in press; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000).”

“For instance, some have argued that implicit measures are stronger predictors of spontaneous behaviors, whereas explicit measures are stronger predictors of deliberate behaviors (Dovidio et al., 2002; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“We are reminded of the distinction in a number of literatures between implicit and explicit processes that occasionally diverge, yet nevertheless independently predict important behavioral and judgmental outcomes (e.g., Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, & Howard, 1997; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”

“This view would be consistent with advances in the psychology of reasoning (Sloman 1996) and in the psychology of attitudes (Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler 2000).”

“We distinguish between unconscious (implicit) and conscious (explicit) processing (Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler 2000).”

“Some theorists assume that implicit preferences reflect rather old components of attitudes that may have been replaced by another attitude on the explicit level (Wilson et al., 2000).”

“In contrast to the MODE model, most other dual-process theories propose that implicit and explicit assessments reflect distinct mental representations or operations (Devine, 1989; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“Speeded responses were used because time pressure has been found to enhance the relation between implicit processes and explicit judgments (e.g., Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”

“The attitude that people endorse at any point in time depends on whether they have the cognitive capacity to retrieve the explicit attitude and whether the explicit attitude overrides the implicit one” (Wilson et al. 2000, 102).”

“This finding suggests that emotional responses can be dissociated from explicit person judgments, a possibility consistent with research on implicit and explicit social cognition (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ), as well as evidence for implicit associative memory (Carlesimo, Perri, Costa…”

“One is consciously accessibly whereas the other remains outside of awareness with the possibility of being activated-oftentimes automatically-by exposure to the target (see Dovidio et al., 1997, 2001; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000).”

“Up to date, highly influential theorizing has posited that automatic associations stem from attitudes and conscious beliefs that have become overlearned and automatized over time (e.g., Rudman, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“Although explicit anti-fat attitudes appeared to increase from 2001 to 2013, explicit attitudes are relatively easier to change than implicit attitudes (32)—and implicit anti-fat attitudes appeared to decrease in that time span.”

“This argument is consistent with theories differentiating automatic and controlled processes in attitude activation and social evaluation (Devine, 1989; Fazio, 2001; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald et al., 2002; Wilson et al., 2000).”

“In Epstein’s view, whereas the explicit self-system is cognitive and based on rational, conscious logic, the implicit selfsystem is experiential and based on nonconscious, affective experience (for a similar theory concerning dual attitudes in general, see Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”