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A model of dual attitudes.
Abstract
When an attitude changes from A1 to A2, what happens to A1? Most theories assume, at least implicitly, that the new attitude replaces the former one. The authors argue that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. Dual attitudes are defined as different evaluations of the same attitude object: an automatic, implicit attitude and an explicit attitude. The attitude that people endorse depends on whether they have the cognitive capacity to retrieve the explicit attitude and whether this overrides their implicit attitude. A number of literatures consistent with these hypotheses are reviewed, and the implications of the dual-attitude model for attitude theory and measurement are discussed. For example, by including only explicit measures, previous studies may have exaggerated the ease with which people change their attitudes. Even if an explicit attitude changes, an implicit attitude can remain the same.
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“More generally, there are many cases where two cognitive states with opposite content do not lead to any negative affect—a topic widely discussed both in philosophy and in psychology.”
From Conative Dissonance (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000
In the citing paper
“even consciously egalitarian people may hold negative ethnic and racial stereotypes and attitudes,26–31 of which they may not be fully conscious.”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“(2) application of such stereotypes frequently occurs outside conscious awareness26–31”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“as unconscious biases are “habits of mind”,31,45 learned over time through repeated personal experiences and cultural socialization, they are highly resistant to change.46”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
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“We use the “dual attitude” concept to explain this phenomenon [93].”
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“Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”
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“To the extent that explicit attitudes reflect social desirability concerns, they may be more likely to predict behavior under conditions where social norms have a stronger influence (e.g., Dovidio et al., 1997; McConnell & Leibold, 2001; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialHouwer, J. D., & Bruycker, E. D. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466606x130346 · Cited by 140
“This observation is in line with the suggestion that the IAT captures spontaneous evaluative associations with the attitude object (e.g. Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson et al., 2000).”
ResultSpecial Review: Decision Utility, The Brain, and Pursuit of Hedonic Goals
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“…of incomplete awareness of how social contexts affect personal decisions and/or social desirability concerns (Dasgupta, 2004, 2009; Ferguson & Bargh, 2007; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald et al., 2002; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977; Nosek & Hansen, 2008; Petty et al., 2008; Wilson et al., 2000).”
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“This applies to personality processes just as it applies to other areas of psychological functioning (Westen, 1998; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ), and some PD investigators have turned to implicit measures borrowed from cognitive science for this reason (Korfine & Hooley, 2000).”
MethodEstablishing construct validity evidence for regional measures of explicit and implicit racial bias.
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“This interpretation is consistent with some theoretical models of individual bias which postulate that biases are a result of associations learned over a lifetime, and fairly immutable to change (e.g., Baron & Banaji, 2006; Wilson et al., 2000).”
ResultImplicit measures of consumer cognition: A review
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“A widespread assumption that is directly related to the last one is that implicit measures reflect mental associations that, once formed, are highly robust and stable over time (e.g., Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”
BackgroundThe neural correlates of implicit and explicit self-relevant processing
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“In contrast, others have argued that these divergences reflect the presence of two relatively independent evaluative systems that serve complementary but discrete roles, similar to the distinction between implicit and explicit motor learning (e.g., Wilson and Dunn, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”
Deutsch, R., & Gawronski, B. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.09.001 · Cited by 130
Haeffel, G. J., Abramson, L. Y., Brazy, P. C., Shah, J. Y., Teachman, B. A., & Nosek, B. A. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.09.003 · Cited by 130
When Teams Agree While Disagreeing: Reflexion and Reflection in Shared Cognition
Healey, M. P., Vuori, T. O., & Hodgkinson, G. P. (2015) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2013.0154 · Cited by 139
“time appraisals of tasks and people (Wilson et al., 2000).”
Todd, A. R., & Burgmer, P. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031999 · Cited by 145
Conner, M. T., Perugini, M., O'Gorman, R., Ayres, K., & Prestwich, A. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207309194 · Cited by 129
“Several theories now provide accounts of the role of implicit and explicit measures of attitudes in determining behavior (e.g., Fazio, 1990; Fazio & Olson, 2003; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultRydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., Strain, L. M., Claypool, H. M., & Hugenberg, K. (2006) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.393 · Cited by 126
Ahern, A. L., Bennett, K. M., & Hetherington, M. M. (2008) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640260802115852 · Cited by 129
“An individual can hold differing implicit and explicit attitudes ( Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ) and it has been demonstrated that implicit attitudes can predict behavior both independently of, and synergistically with, explicit attitudes ( Perugini, 2005 ).”
BackgroundThe dynamic time course of stereotype activation: Activation, dissipation, and resurrection.
Kunda, Z., Davies, P. G., Adams, B., & Spencer, S. J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.3.283 · Cited by 129
Reporting Tendencies Underlie Discrepancies Between Implicit and Explicit Measures of Self-Esteem
Olson, M. A., Fázio, R. H., & Hermann, A. D. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01890.x · Cited by 129
The analysis of intuition: Processing fluency and affect in judgements of semantic coherence
Topolinski, S., & Strack, F. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930802420745 · Cited by 134
“In general, these are the features of “intuitive” processes: The individual has little awareness of them (eg, Betsch, 2008 ; Deutsch & Strack, 2008 ; Hammond, 1996 ; Lieberman, 2000 ; Unkelbach & Plessner, 2008 ; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”
Narcissistic Fragility: Rethinking Its Links to Explicit and Implicit Self-esteem
Gregg, A. P., & Sedikides, C. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860902815451 · Cited by 127
“It has long been theorized that implicit attitudes are more robust than their explicit counterparts (Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ) and some empirical evidence bears out this assertion (Gawronski & Strack, 2004 ).”
BackgroundChapter 1 The Introspection Illusion
Pronin, E. (2009) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)00401-2 · Cited by 139
Social Cognition 2.0: An Interactive Memory Systems Account
Amodio, D. M. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.10.002 · Cited by 145
“Alternative models replace the control process with propositional validation [17] or a separate representation of explicit attitudes or beliefs [16].”
MethodAnarchy of effects? Exploring attention to online advertising and multiple outcomes
Goodrich, K. (2011) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20371 · Cited by 134
Reliability of Implicit Self–Esteem Measures Revisited
Krause, S., Back, M., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. (2011) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.792 · Cited by 117
Metadata
- Authors
- Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2000
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 101-126
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2085169214
- Cited by
- 2,112
- References
- 184
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 128 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 165.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service (41841)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, attitude change, attitude measurement, attitude theory
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Motivation, Object Attachment, Prejudice
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