The DOI matches its Crossref record; 183 of the 184 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A model of dual attitudes.
Abstract
When an attitude changes from A1 to A2, what happens to A1? Most theories assume, at least implicitly, that the new attitude replaces the former one. The authors argue that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. Dual attitudes are defined as different evaluations of the same attitude object: an automatic, implicit attitude and an explicit attitude. The attitude that people endorse depends on whether they have the cognitive capacity to retrieve the explicit attitude and whether this overrides their implicit attitude. A number of literatures consistent with these hypotheses are reviewed, and the implications of the dual-attitude model for attitude theory and measurement are discussed. For example, by including only explicit measures, previous studies may have exaggerated the ease with which people change their attitudes. Even if an explicit attitude changes, an implicit attitude can remain the same.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“More generally, there are many cases where two cognitive states with opposite content do not lead to any negative affect—a topic widely discussed both in philosophy and in psychology.”
From Conative Dissonance (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000
In the citing paper
“even consciously egalitarian people may hold negative ethnic and racial stereotypes and attitudes,26–31 of which they may not be fully conscious.”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“(2) application of such stereotypes frequently occurs outside conscious awareness26–31”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“as unconscious biases are “habits of mind”,31,45 learned over time through repeated personal experiences and cultural socialization, they are highly resistant to change.46”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
Citations
Cites
(1975) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · Cited by 36,737
(1969) · Cited by 18,340
A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Morvan, C., & O’Connor, A. (2017) · Macat Library eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781912282432 · Cited by 18,284
The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud
Freud, S. (1953) · Cited by 17,730
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317
Self-citationMeasuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 · Cited by 9,210
Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences.
Zajonc, R. B. (1980) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.35.2.151 · Cited by 8,094
DeLamater, J., & Ward, A. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0 · Cited by 7,590
Book Review: The Psychology of Attitudes
Chakravarti, D., Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1997) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151869 · Cited by 7,173
Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822 · Cited by 13,448
“An important point of discussion in this area of research is whether and how individuals can be aware of implicit constructs and processes (e.g., Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundThe emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.
Haidt, J. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814 · Cited by 8,048
“Also, because forcing people to introspect to find reasons for their attitudes can change those attitudes temporarily (T. D. Wilson et al., 2000; T. D. Wilson & Schooler, 1991), standard moral judgment interviews might not even provide a valid measure of people's real moral beliefs.”
BackgroundDual-Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment, and Social Cognition
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629 · Cited by 5,137
Nature and Operation of Attitudes
Ajzen, I. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.27 · Cited by 4,321
“Thus, when attitudes change, the new attitude overrides but may not replace the old attitude (Wilson et al 2000).”
BackgroundReflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior
Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1 · Cited by 3,984
“Some theorists argue that implicit measures identify implicit attitudes or implicit stereotypes (e.g., Wilson et al., 2000); others prefer to view the measure itself as implicit, but not the attitude (or whatever other concept; Fazio & Olson, 2003).”
BackgroundUnderstanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015575 · Cited by 3,257
“Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986; Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino- Browne, & Correll, 2003; McGregor & Marigold, 2003; Nosek, 2005; Petty, Tormala, Briñol, & Jarvis, 2006; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundPintrich, P. R. (2003) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667 · Cited by 3,459
“T. Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler (2000) also have made a similar argument for the importance of examining the operation of both implicit and explicit attitudinal and belief systems.”
BackgroundGawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692 · Cited by 2,756
“Even though previous models effectively account for the differential impact of implicit and explicit attitudes on spontaneous and deliberate behavior (e.g., Fazio & Olson, 2003; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000), theories of attitude change still face a”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential(2003) · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225 · Cited by 1,829
“(e.g., Wilson et al. 2000, Schwarz & Bohner 2001).”
BackgroundNeuroeconomics: How Neuroscience Can Inform Economics
Camerer, C. F., Loewenstein, G. F., & Prelec, D. (2005) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/0022051053737843 · Cited by 2,215
Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205275613 · Cited by 1,642
“This finding is consistent with the assumption that implicit measures primarily reflect automatic associations, whereas explicit self-reports depend on the effortful retrieval of information from memory (Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultImplicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.62 · Cited by 1,567
“…attitudes do not simply reflect a continuum on which the former is a less virulent version of the other but rather that these attitudes may be separate systems with independent consequences (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995) and different components in a system of dual attitudes (Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultA unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept.
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.1.3 · Cited by 1,701
“rary. The article’s implicit– explicit distinction draws on a distinction between automatic and deliberate processes that has been made frequently in recent social psychological theory (see Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”
BackgroundPlan 9 From Cyberspace: The Implications of the Internet for Personality and Social Psychology
McKenna, K. Y. A., & Bargh, J. A. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0401_6 · Cited by 1,588
Why do humans reason? Arguments for an argumentative theory
Mercier, H., & Sperber, D. (2011) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x10000968 · Cited by 2,254
The Advantages of an Inclusive Definition of Attitude
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (2007) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.582 · Cited by 1,258
Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: II. Method Variables and Construct Validity
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271418 · Cited by 1,216
“10.1177/0146167204271418PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETINNosek et al. / METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES FOR THE IAT”
BackgroundInfluentialPrejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon.
Payne, B. K. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.2.181 · Cited by 1,151
Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.800 · Cited by 1,102
“…correlations between explicit and implicit measures, support the argument that implicit and explicit attitudes are at least partially dissociated (Devine & Monteith , 1999; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Monteith et al., 1993; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice.
Crandall, C. S., & Eshleman, A. K. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414 · Cited by 1,168
“We suggest that empathy makes people rethink the appropriateness of the prejudice, adding an explicit value of tolerance (Devine & Monteith, 1993; Galinsky & Moskowitz , 2000; T. D. Wilson et al., 2000), leading to a more favorable outward attitude (but without changing the genuine prejudice).”
BackgroundThe Influence of Attitudes on Behavior
Ajzen, I., Fishbein, M., Lohmann, S., & Albarracín, D. (2018) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · doi:10.4324/9781315178103-5 · Cited by 1,060
Habits in everyday life: Thought, emotion, and action.
Wood, W., Quinn, J. M., & Kashy, D. A. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1281 · Cited by 1,028
The Implicit Association Test at Age 7: A Methodological and Conceptual Review
Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2007) · Cited by 987
Small, D. A., Loewenstein, G. F., & Slovic, P. (2006) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.01.005 · Cited by 1,041
“The finding that sympathetic reactions are undermined by deliberative thinking further supports the two systems approach, in which an affective response can be blunted or controlled through thoughtful deliberation (see Epstein, 1994; Shiv & Fedorikhin, 1999; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultBohner, G., & Dickel, N. (2010) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131609 · Cited by 1,099
Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity and Dual-Process Theories of the Mind.
Barrett, L. F., Tugade, M. M., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.553 · Cited by 913
“These findings are consistent with the idea that old attitudes never die, but merely exist in parallel with newer ones (Wilson et al., 2000).”
ResultPervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., Olson, K. R., Chugh, D., Greenwald, A. G., et al. (2007) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280701489053 · Cited by 1,247
“Theoretical and methodological innovation has spurred interest in implicit social cognition (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson et al., 2000 ).”
Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test.
Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.774 · Cited by 883
“This pattern, along with previous theorizing about the independence between implicit and explicit attitudes (see Wilson et al., 2000), supports the notion that the IAT and explicit attitude measures are independent constructs.”
ResultLoving-kindness meditation increases social connectedness.
Hutcherson, C. A., Seppala, E. M., & Gross, J. J. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0013237 · Cited by 758
“These automatic, implicit responses appear resistant to change even in the face of new or contradictory evidence (Gregg, Seibt, & Banaji, 2006), and their effects on behavior can often be difficult to consciously detect or control ( Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”
BackgroundThe propositional nature of human associative learning
Mitchell, C. J., Houwer, J. D., & Lovibond, P. F. (2009) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09000855 · Cited by 789
“It includes, for example, fear learning (e.g., O ¨ hman & Mineka 2001), memory (e.g., Schacter 1987), reasoning (e.g., Evans 2003), decision making (e.g., Kahneman & Frederick 2002), and the activation of attitudes (e.g., Wilson et al. 2000).”
BackgroundWiers, R. W., Bartholow, B. D., van den Wildenberg, E., Thush, C., Engels, R. C. M. E., Sher, K. J., Grenard, J., Ames, S. L., & Stacy, A. W. (2007) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.09.021 · Cited by 734
“…present in older adolescents and adults, and that more positive and arousal-related associations that adolescents and adults report develop next to the negative associations, creating (implicit) ambivalence (Houben and Wiers, 2006a; Rudman, 2004; Wiers et al., 2006a; cf. Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundDasgupta, N., & Asgari, S. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.02.003 · Cited by 797
“Specifically, if automatic attitudes and beliefs operate without perceivers awareness, control, or intention, does it mean that such cognitions are resistant to change in the short term (Bargh, 1999; Devine, 1989; Wilson et al., 2000), or are they more flexible than previously imagined? This question is important for…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe evolution and psychology of self-deception
von Hippel, W., & Trivers, R. L. (2011) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x10001354 · Cited by 767
Chris Fraley, R. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0602_03 · Cited by 1,066
The ascent of man: Theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization.
Kteily, N., Bruneau, E., Waytz, A. G., & Cotterill, S. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000048 · Cited by 776
“…response to terror attacks, support for Roma discrimination), consistent with research suggesting that explicit attitudes are particularly likely to shape outcomes for which people have the motivation and opportunity to deliberate over courses of action (Dovidio et al., 2002; Wilson et al., 2000).”
ResultModerators of the Relationship Between Implicit and Explicit Evaluation.
Nosek, B. A. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.4.565 · Cited by 701
“2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Nosek & Smyth, 2005); (b) dual-process theories that suggest distinct evaluative or related processes (Carver, in press; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Smith & DeCoster, 1999; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000); (c) neurological evidence that implicit and explicit measures corresp…”
BackgroundCollective narcissism and its social consequences.
de Zavala, A. G., Cichocka, A., Eidelson, R., & Jayawickreme, N. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016904 · Cited by 704
A meta-analysis of procedures to change implicit measures
Forscher, P. S., Lai, C. K., Axt, J. R., Ebersole, C. R., Herman, M., Devine, P. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000160 · Cited by 700
Berridge, K. C. (2003) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0278-2626(03)00014-9 · Cited by 701
Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mücke, D. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.380 · Cited by 721
Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Vance, S. L. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.835 · Cited by 720
Paying Attention to Mindfulness and Its Effects on Task Performance in the Workplace
Dane, E. (2010) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206310367948 · Cited by 771
Moral identity and the expanding circle of moral regard toward out-groups.
Reed, A., & Aquino, K. F. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1270 · Cited by 674
“…provides insight into the cognitive and motivational processes that might interfere with what seems to be humanly universal, that is, the often automatic (cf. Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998; Wilson et al., 2000) tendency for people to favor in-groups and to negatively respond to out-groups.”
BackgroundPrejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination: Theoretical and Empirical Overview
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (2010) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446200919.n1 · Cited by 635
Predictive validity of an implicit association test for assessing anxiety.
Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1441 · Cited by 657
“Introspective limits, on the other hand, refer to the impressive amount of evidence showing that individuals process information about themselves and their environment not only in an explicit (i.e., controlled or conscious) mode but also in an implicit (i.e., automatic or nonconscious) mode (Epstein, 1994; Fazio, 1990…”
BackgroundBelief Echoes: The Persistent Effects of Corrected Misinformation
Thorson, E. A. (2015) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187 · Cited by 675
Self-Knowledge: Its Limits, Value, and Potential for Improvement
Wilson, T. D., & Dunn, E. W. (2004) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141954 · Cited by 629
Self-citationReducing implicit racial preferences: II. Intervention effectiveness across time
Lai, C. K., Skinner, A. L., Cooley, E., Murrar, S., Brauer, M., Devos, T., Calanchini, J., Xiao, Y. J., Pedram, C., Marshburn, C. K., et al. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/xge0000179 · Cited by 624
van den Bergh, L., Denessen, E., Hornstra, L., Voeten, M., & Holland, R. W. (2010) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/0002831209353594 · Cited by 625
Turner, R. N., Hewstone, M., & Voci, A. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.369 · Cited by 618
Cambridge Handbook of Experimental Political Science
Druckman, J. N. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511921452 · Cited by 622
Secure and defensive high self-esteem.
Jordan, C. H., Spencer, S. J., Zanna, M. P., Hoshino-Browne, E., & Correll, J. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.969 · Cited by 597
“In keeping with contemporary models of implicit attitudes (e.g., Wilson et al., 2000), we believe that explicit and implicit attitudes represent distinct evaluations that exist at different processing levels and that each affects behavior.”
ResultWhy can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002) · Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.8.2.88 · Cited by 593
“Implicit and explicit attitudes can influence behavior in different ways and under different conditions (Dovidio & Fazio , 1992; Fazio, 1990; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundUnderstanding implicit and explicit attitude change: A systems of reasoning analysis.
Rydell, R. J., & McConnell, A. R. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.995 · Cited by 594
“…it has been proposed that implicit attitudes and explicit attitudes are the products of different and distinct underlying cognitive processes (Wilson et al., 2000), and accordingly, empirical studies have demonstrated that implicit and explicit attitudes predict different kinds of behavior…”
BackgroundResultAttitudes as Object–Evaluation Associations of Varying Strength
Fazio, R. H. (2007) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.603 · Cited by 798
Math Anxiety: Past Research, Promising Interventions, and a New Interpretation Framework
Ramirez, G., Shaw, S. T., & Maloney, E. A. (2018) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2018.1447384 · Cited by 776
Bohner, G., & Wänke, M. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315784786 · Cited by 584
Kunda, Z., & Spencer, S. J. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.522 · Cited by 553
“The notion that people may have implicit stereotypic beliefs or attitudes that they are unaware of is central to the theory of aversive racism (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986) as well as to broader theories of implicit cognition (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995) and dual attitudes (Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundThe Face of Need: Facial Emotion Expression on Charity Advertisements
Small, D. A., & Verrochi, N. M. (2009) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.46.6.777 · Cited by 546
Quantifying construct validity: Two simple measures.
Westen, D., & Rosenthal, R. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.608 · Cited by 543
Clinical handbook of mindfulness
(2009) · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-09593-6 · Cited by 543
The Adult Attachment Interview and self-reports of attachment style: An empirical rapprochement.
Roisman, G. I., Holland, A. S., Fortuna, K., Fraley, R. C., Clausell, E., & Clarke, A. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.678 · Cited by 575
The Bias of Crowds: How Implicit Bias Bridges Personal and Systemic Prejudice
Payne, B. K., Vuletich, H. A., & Lundberg, K. B. (2017) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2017.1335568 · Cited by 583
Amodio, D. M., & Devine, P. G. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.652 · Cited by 574
Olson, M. A., & Fázio, R. H. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.653 · Cited by 532
“However, one would be hard-pressed to dispute the face validity of a question like “how much do you like apples?” to tap into one’s evaluation of apples.1 Finally, the IAT and explicit measures may be tapping two different attitudes (or two different components of the same attitude) toward the same object ( Wilson, Li…”
BackgroundAttitudes and evaluations: a social cognitive neuroscience perspective
Cunningham, W. A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.12.005 · Cited by 551
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(04)36001-6 · Cited by 650
"Unlearning" automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes.
Rudman, L. A., Ashmore, R. D., & Gary, M. L. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.856 · Cited by 544
Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology
Burgess, D., van Ryn, M., Dovidio, J., & Saha, S. (2007) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0160-1 · Cited by 495
The logic of habit in International Relations
Hopf, T. (2010) · European Journal of International Relations · doi:10.1177/1354066110363502 · Cited by 492
“It has been found that habits may continue to control what we do even while we explicitly express a contrary attitude (Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundWu, Y., & Berry, D. C. (2018) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.13511 · Cited by 536
Re-representing consciousness: dissociations between experience and meta-consciousness
Schooler, J. W. (2002) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(02)01949-6 · Cited by 485
Carver, C. S., Johnson, S. L., & Joormann, J. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0013740 · Cited by 510
Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes.
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.815 · Cited by 484
Cognitive systems for revenge and forgiveness
McCullough, M. E., Kurzban, R., & Tabak, B. A. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x11002160 · Cited by 511
Intelligent systems in tourism
Gretzel, U. (2011) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/j.annals.2011.04.014 · Cited by 468
Dasgupta, N. (2011) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2011.607313 · Cited by 466
Norman, J. (2002) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0200002x · Cited by 466
“In fact, Norman’s kind of dual control model has an application to such diverse areas as attention (Rafal & Henik 1994), reasoning (Epstein 1994; Sloman 1996), attitudes (Wilson et al. 2000), moral judgments (Bolender 2001), and emotion (LeDoux 1995), and is revealed in the acquisition of fears and phobias (Jacobs & N…”
BackgroundImplicit Attitudes towards Homosexuality: Reliability, Validity, and Controllability of the IAT
Banse, R., Seise, J., & Zerbes, N. (2001) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//0949-3946.48.2.145 · Cited by 484
Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias.
Todd, A. R., Bodenhausen, G. V., Richeson, J. A., & Galinsky, A. D. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022308 · Cited by 462
Implicit Measures in Social and Personality Psychology
Gawronski, B., & Houwer, J. D. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511996481.016 · Cited by 459
Social influence effects on automatic racial prejudice.
Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., & Sinclair, S. A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.842 · Cited by 460
On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave
Dovidio, J. F. (2001) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00244 · Cited by 449
Rudman, L. A. (2004) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00279.x · Cited by 445
Implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions in heavy and light drinkers.
Wiers, R. W. H. J., van Woerden, N., Smulders, F. T. Y., & de Jong, P. J. (2002) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.111.4.648 · Cited by 442
“In addition, the use of implicit as well as explicit measures may be of importance because they could tap different underlying cognitive–motivational processes (Stacy, 1997; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundThe Associative–Propositional Evaluation Model
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2011) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385522-0.00002-0 · Cited by 456
“A common assumption in the attitude literature is that implicit evaluations are the product of highly robust representations that have their roots in longterm socialization experiences (e.g., Rudman, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAttitude, Inference, Association: On the Propositional Structure of Implicit Bias
Mandelbaum, E. (2015) · Noûs · doi:10.1111/nous.12089 · Cited by 437
“13 Most theorists who are sympathetic to AIB are also sympathetic to dual process theories that ban unconscious propositions from our ontology (e.g., Smith and Decoster 1999, Gawronski and Bodenhausen 2006, Rydell and McConnell 2006, Wilson et al. 2000, and Grumm et al. 2009).”
BackgroundWhat's in a name: Implicit self-esteem and the automatic self.
Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.80.4.669 · Cited by 424
“As such, these findings suggest that implicit selfesteem effects may be understood as automatic evaluations that can be overruled by more deliberative forms of processing (Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCarver, C. S. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0904_2 · Cited by 442
Easier done than undone: Asymmetry in the malleability of implicit preferences.
Gregg, A. P., Seibt, B., & Banaji, M. R. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.1 · Cited by 450
“Finally, Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler (2000) have drawn a distinction between attitudes that are consciously constructed online and attitudes that take the form of more enduring dispositions.”
BackgroundResultAwareness of implicit attitudes.
Hahn, A., Judd, C. M., Hirsh, H. K., & Blair, I. V. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0035028 · Cited by 414
Gender Differences in Automatic In-Group Bias: Why Do Women Like Women More Than Men Like Men?
Rudman, L. A., & Goodwin, S. A. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.4.494 · Cited by 444
Predictive models of implicit and explicit attitudes
Perugini, M. (2005) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466604x23491 · Cited by 411
Baartman, L. K. J., & de Bruijn, E. (2011) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2011.03.001 · Cited by 436
"What about me?" Perceptions of exclusion and whites' reactions to multiculturalism.
Plaut, V., Garnett, F. G., Buffardi, L. E., & Sanchez-Burks, J. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022832 · Cited by 388
A Multitrait-Multimethod Validation of the Implicit Association Test
Nosek, B. A., & Smyth, F. L. (2007) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.14 · Cited by 427
“Other models suggest that the implicit and explicit distinction is truly dual-process in that implicit and explicit evaluative processes or representations are distinct and both can influence perception, judgment, and action simultaneously, interactively, or in turn (e.g., Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialAre “implicit” attitudes unconscious?
Gawronski, B., Hofmann, W., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2005.11.007 · Cited by 430
Arkes, H. R., & Tetlock, P. E. (2004) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1504_01 · Cited by 392
“For example, Wittenbrink et al. (2001) and Barden, Maddux, Petty, and Brewer (2004) have separately shown the impact on IAT or affective priming results of the context in which the African-American individual appeared. In the first experiment of Wittenbrink et al. (2001), all participants were first given the IAT.”
InfluentialPredicting actual behavior from the explicit and implicit self-concept of personality.
Back, M. D., Schmukle, S. C., & Egloff, B. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016229 · Cited by 429
Self-control in action: Implicit dispositions toward goals and away from temptations.
Fishbach, A., & Shah, J. Y. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.820 · Cited by 403
Metadata
- Authors
- Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2000
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 101-126
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2085169214
- Cited by
- 2,112
- References
- 184
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 128 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 165.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service (41841)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, attitude change, attitude measurement, attitude theory
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Motivation, Object Attachment, Prejudice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
