Cited by 2,112Social and Intergroup PsychologyPsychometric Methodologies and TestingBehavioral Health and Interventions

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 183 of the 184 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

A model of dual attitudes.

Wilson, Timothy D., Lindsey, Samuel, Schooler, Tonya Y.·2000·Psychological Review

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

When an attitude changes from A1 to A2, what happens to A1? Most theories assume, at least implicitly, that the new attitude replaces the former one. The authors argue that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. Dual attitudes are defined as different evaluations of the same attitude object: an automatic, implicit attitude and an explicit attitude. The attitude that people endorse depends on whether they have the cognitive capacity to retrieve the explicit attitude and whether this overrides their implicit attitude. A number of literatures consistent with these hypotheses are reviewed, and the implications of the dual-attitude model for attitude theory and measurement are discussed. For example, by including only explicit measures, previous studies may have exaggerated the ease with which people change their attitudes. Even if an explicit attitude changes, an implicit attitude can remain the same.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.107.1.101

Cites

183 of 183 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Untitled work
(1975) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · Cited by 36,737
Untitled work
(1969) · Cited by 18,340
A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Morvan, C., & O’Connor, A. (2017) · Macat Library eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781912282432 · Cited by 18,284
The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud
Freud, S. (1953) · Cited by 17,730
Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.3.231 · Cited by 11,317
Self-citation
Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464 · Cited by 9,210
Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences.
Zajonc, R. B. (1980) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.35.2.151 · Cited by 8,094
Handbook of Social Psychology
DeLamater, J., & Ward, A. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0 · Cited by 7,590
Book Review: The Psychology of Attitudes
Chakravarti, D., Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1997) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151869 · Cited by 7,173
Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4 · Cited by 6,682
Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511 · Cited by 6,247
Untitled work
(1999) · Cited by 6,104
Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure
Hochschild, A. R. (1979) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/227049 · Cited by 5,962
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673
Social psychology: handbook of basic principles
Higgins, E., & Kruglanski, A. (2008) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-3496 · Cited by 5,535
Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion.
Chaiken, S. (1980) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.39.5.752 · Cited by 5,516
Self-Perception Theory
Bem, D. J. (1972) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60024-6 · Cited by 5,241
Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change
Marquart, F., & Naderer, B. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-09923-7_20 · Cited by 5,011
Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states.
Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.3.513 · Cited by 4,952
Security in Infancy, Childhood, and Adulthood: A Move to the Level of Representation
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/3333827 · Cited by 4,567
The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life
LeDoux, J. E. (2004) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,212
Handbook of Social Cognition
Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315807102 · Cited by 4,211
A DYNAMIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY
Lewin, K. (1936) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-193611000-00051 · Cited by 3,779
The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self
Steele, C. M. (1988) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60229-4 · Cited by 3,697
Review of Child Development Research
Walters, J., Hoffman, M. L., & Hoffman, L. W. (1965) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.2307/349834 · Cited by 3,658
Attachment theory and close relationships
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-6513 · Cited by 3,642
The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes
Katz, D. (1960) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1086/266945 · Cited by 3,130
The Dynamic Self-Concept: A Social Psychological Perspective
Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.38.020187.001503 · Cited by 3,089
Toward a theory of schizophrenia
Bateson, G., Jackson, D. D., Haley, J., & Weakland, J. H. (2007) · Systems Research and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1002/bs.3830010402 · Cited by 2,869
The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions.
Ekman, P., & Davidson, R. J. (1994) · Oxford University Press eBooks · Cited by 2,839
Ironic processes of mental control.
Wegner, D. M. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037//0033-295x.101.1.34 · Cited by 2,609
On the automatic activation of attitudes.
Fázio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.50.2.229 · Cited by 2,584
Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension.
Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., & Trabasso, T. (1994) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.101.3.371 · Cited by 2,578
Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men
Rodhom, C., & Tolman, E. C. (1950) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1418946 · Cited by 2,455
Handbook of Experimental Psychology
(1952) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1952.02930050088038 · Cited by 2,276
Introduction: Motivation
Wendl, C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108608954.002 · Cited by 2,260
Attitudes versus Actions: The Relationship of Verbal and Overt Behavioral Responses to Attitude Objects
Wicker, A. W. (1969) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1969.tb00619.x · Cited by 2,152
Self-generated validity and other effects of measurement on belief, attitude, intention, and behavior.
Feldman, J. M., & Lynch, J. G. (1988) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.73.3.421 · Cited by 2,070
Multiple Processes by which Attitudes Guide Behavior: The Mode Model as an Integrative Framework
Fazio, R. H. (1990) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60318-4 · Cited by 2,002
New directions in attribution research
Harvey, J. H., Ickes, W. J., & Kidd, R. F. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,994
Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of Social Behavior, Vol. 2.
Wagner, D. G., Higgins, E. T., & Sorrentino, R. M. (1991) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2072281 · Cited by 1,970
Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates.
Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.401 · Cited by 1,870
Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013 · Cited by 1,793
Untitled work
(1998) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,773
Attitudes vs. actions
LaPiere, R. T. (1934) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/2570339 · Cited by 1,720
How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ?
McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. L. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.690 · Cited by 1,691
Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice.
Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.811 · Cited by 1,689
Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale.
McConahay, J. B. (1986) · Cited by 1,687
Dynamics of ongoing activity: explanation of the large variability in evoked cortical responses
Arieli, A., Sterkin, A., Grinvald, A., & Aertsen, A. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.273.5283.1868 · Cited by 1,660
Relation of Implicit Theories to the Construction of Personal Histories
Ross, M. W. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.2.341 · Cited by 1,612
Empirical validation of affect, behavior, and cognition as distinct components of attitude.
Breckler, S. J. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.47.6.1191 · Cited by 1,593
Attitudes Can Be Measured
Thurstone, L. L. (1928) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/214483 · Cited by 1,558
Prejudice, Discrimination and Racism
Beer, W. R., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (1988) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2069383 · Cited by 1,491
The Cognitive Unconscious
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3629249 · Cited by 1,405
The aversive form of racism.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986) · Cited by 1,374
Attitude Strength
Petty, R. E., & Krosnick, J. A. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315807041 · Cited by 1,313
The New Yorker
Gottlieb, R. (1987) · The New Yorker · Cited by 1,311
Beyond Bipolar Conceptualizations and Measures: The Case of Attitudes and Evaluative Space
Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0101_2 · Cited by 1,306
Loss, sadness and depression
Bowlby, J. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,303
On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort.
Elliot, A. J., & Devine, P. G. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.382 · Cited by 1,289
On the Nature of Prejudice: Automatic and Controlled Processes
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1331 · Cited by 1,270
The heuristic model of persuasion.
Chaiken, S. (1987) · Cited by 1,264
The automaticity of everyday life.
Bargh, J. A. (1997) · Lawrence Erlbaum Associates eBooks · Cited by 1,229
The psychology of learning
Guthrie, E. R. (1935) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,186
Mental contamination and mental correction: Unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations.
Wilson, T. D., & Brekke, N. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.117 · Cited by 1,157 · cited 1×
“With motivated overriding, it is people's experience of A; (or the theory that they have an unwanted attitude; see Monteith, 1993; Wilson & Brekke, 1994) that triggers an attempt to override it, and this overriding requires effort and capacity (e.g., in the case of prejudice).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The relationship between memory and judgment depends on whether the judgment task is memory-based or on-line.
Hastie, R., & Park, B. (1986) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.93.3.258 · Cited by 1,109
Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm.
Ross, L. D., Lepper, M. R., & HUBBARD, M. L. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.32.5.880 · Cited by 1,052
Perseverance in self-perception and social perception: Biased attributional processes in the debriefing paradigm.
Ross, L., Lepper, M. R., & Hubbard, M. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.5.880 · Cited by 1,052
A Handbook of Social Psychology.
Pigors, P., & Murchison, C. (1936) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2084503 · Cited by 978
Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition.
Bargh, J. A. (1989) · Cited by 975
How motives, skills, and values determine what people do.
McClelland, D. C. (1985) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.40.7.812 · Cited by 965
Cognitive processes underlying context effects in attitude measurement.
Tourangeau, R., & Rasinski, K. A. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.299 · Cited by 964
The Construction of Social Judgments
Martin, L. L. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203772874 · Cited by 941
Stereotypes and Stereotyping
Macrae, C. N., Hewstone, M., & Stangor, C. (1996) · Cited by 918
Measuring the Affective and Cognitive Properties of Attitudes: Conceptual and Methodological Issues
Crites, S. L., Fabrigar, L. R., & Petty, R. E. (1994) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167294206001 · Cited by 912
How do attitudes guide behavior
Fázio, R. H. (1986) · Cited by 903
Cognitive dissonance: Progress on a pivotal theory in social psychology.
(1999) · doi:10.1037/10318-000 · Cited by 884
Attachment in adults: Clinical and developmental perspectives.
Sperling, M. R., & Berman, W. (1994) · Guilford Press eBooks · Cited by 852
Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound.
Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.5.808 · Cited by 834
Evidence for racial prejudice at the implicit level and its relationship with questionnaire measures.
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.72.2.262 · Cited by 821
The gradual threshold model of ambivalence: relating the positive and negative bases of attitudes to subjective ambivalence
Priester, J. R., & Petty, R. E. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.431 · Cited by 817
Attitudes as object-evaluation associations: Determinants, consequences, and correlates of attitude accessibility.
Fázio, R. H. (1995) · Cited by 814
On the ambivalence-indifference problem in attitude theory and measurement: A suggested modification of the semantic differential technique.
Kaplan, K. J. (1972) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0032590 · Cited by 807
Attitudes: A new look at an old concept.
Zanna, M. P., & Rempel, J. K. (1988) · Cited by 807
Verbal overshadowing of visual memories: Some things are better left unsaid
Schooler, J. W., & Engstler-Schooler, T. Y. (1990) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(90)90003-m · Cited by 794
Self-citation
Questions and Answers in Attitude Surveys.
Robinson, J. P., Schuman, H., & Presser, S. (1983) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/2578327 · Cited by 781
The development of infant-mother attachment
Ainsworth, M. (1973) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 771
Untitled work
(1995) · Cited by 751
Opinions and Personality
Walk, R. D., Smith, M. B., Bruner, J. S., & White, R. W. (1957) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1419476 · Cited by 717
An Individual Difference Measure of Motivation to Control Prejudiced Reactions
Dunton, B. C., & Fázio, R. H. (1997) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167297233009 · Cited by 683
Self-Generated Attitude Change
Tesser, A. (1978) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60010-6 · Cited by 665
The Quantitative Analysis of Social Problems.
Lujan, H. D., & Tufte, E. R. (1971) · Midwest Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2110128 · Cited by 660
Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming.
Blair, I. V., & Banaji, M. R. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1142 · Cited by 657
Traits and motives: Toward an integration of two traditions in personality research.
Winter, D. G., John, O. P., Stewart, A. J., Klohnen, E. C., & Duncan, L. E. (1998) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.105.2.230 · Cited by 656
The relationship between the affective, behavioral, and cognitive components of attitude
Ostrom, T. M. (1969) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(69)90003-1 · Cited by 625
Advanced social psychology
(1993) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e540002004-001 · Cited by 624
Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for achievement: Two meta-analyses.
Spangler, W. D. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.140 · Cited by 623
Category and stereotype activation: Is prejudice inevitable?
Lepore, L., & Brown, R. J. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.275 · Cited by 617
Introspecting about Reasons can Reduce Post-Choice Satisfaction
Wilson, T. D., Lisle, D. J., Schooler, J. W., Hodges, S. D., Klaaren, K. J., & LaFleur, S. J. (1993) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167293193010 · Cited by 612
Self-citation
Definition and assessment of accuracy in social stereotypes.
Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.1.109 · Cited by 595
Remembrance of things past
(2015) · doi:10.30875/eeedee20-en · Cited by 593
Self-regulation of prejudiced responses: Implications for progress in prejudice-reduction efforts
Monteith, M. J. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.3.469 · Cited by 556
The eyewitness suggestibility effect and memory for source
Lindsay, D. S., & Johnson, M. K. (1989) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198473 · Cited by 549
The Automatic Evaluation Effect: Unconditional Automatic Attitude Activation with a Pronunciation Task
Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Raymond, P., & Hymes, C. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1996.0005 · Cited by 524
Psychoanalysis: Freud's Cognitive Psychology
Erdelyi, M. H. (1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 522
Archives of Psychology
(2018) · Archives of Psychology · doi:10.31296/aop · Cited by 500
Positive mood and persuasion: Different roles for affect under high- and low-elaboration conditions.
Petty, R. E., Schumann, D. W., Richman, S. A., & Strathman, A. J. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.5 · Cited by 496
Constructing reality and its alternatives: an inclusion/ exclusion model of assimilation and contrast effects in social judgment
Schwarz, N., & Bless, H. (1992) · Social Science Open Access Repository (GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences) · Cited by 475
Trivialization: the forgotten mode of dissonance reduction.
Simon, L., Greenberg, J., & Brehm, J. W. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.247 · Cited by 466
Reconciling conflicting results derived from experimental and survey studies of attitude change.
Hovland, C. I. (1959) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0042210 · Cited by 462
The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science.
Westen, D. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.333 · Cited by 448
Untitled work
(1991) · Cited by 434
Trait salience in the spontaneous self-concept.
McGuire, W. J., & Padawer-Singer, A. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.33.6.743 · Cited by 430
Attitude Organization and Change: An Analysis of Consistency Among Attitude Components.
Newcomb, T. M., Rosenberg, M. J., Hovland, C. I., McGuire, W. J., Abelson, R. P., & Brehm, J. W. (1961) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2090276 · Cited by 424
Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame.
Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.68.2.181 · Cited by 417
Racial Stereotypes: Associations and Ascriptions of Positive and Negative Characteristics
Gaertner, S. L., & McLaughlin, J. P. (1983) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3033657 · Cited by 405
Methods of assessing adult attachment: Do they converge?
Bartholomew, K., & Shaver, P. R. (1998) · Cited by 393
The affective priming effect: Automatic activation of evaluative information in memory
Hermans, D., Houwer, J. D., & Eelen, P. (1994) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699939408408957 · Cited by 391
Introspection, Attitude Change, and Attitude-Behavior Consistency: the Disruptive Effects of Explaining Why we Feel the Way we Do
Wilson, T. D., Dunn, D. S., Kraft, D., & Lisle, D. J. (1989) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60311-1 · Cited by 366
Self-citation
Affect in Social Judgments and Decisions: A Multiprocess Model
Forgas, J. P. (1992) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60285-3 · Cited by 364
Testing the Self-Perception Explanation of Dissonance Phenomena: On the Salience of Premanipulation Attitudes.
Bem, D. J., & McConnell, H. K. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0020916 · Cited by 349
Effects of affective and cognitive focus on the attitude-behavior relation.
Millar, M. G., & Tesser, A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.2.270 · Cited by 347
Savings in the relearning of trait information as evidence for spontaneous inference generation
Carlston, D. E., & Skowronski, J. J. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.840 · Cited by 334
Eyewitness testimony: Were we misled?
Bekerian, D. A., & Bowers, J. M. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.9.1.139 · Cited by 330
What do connectionism and social psychology offer each other?
Smith, E. R. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.70.5.893 · Cited by 312
White bears and other unwanted thoughts
Wegner, D. M. (1990) · Cited by 293
Cognitive Algebra: Integration Theory Applied to Social Attribution
Anderson, N. H. (1974) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60035-0 · Cited by 286
The Social Psychology of Knowledge
Bar‐Tal, D., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2010) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 283
Attitudes as temporary constructions
Wilson, T. D., & Hodges, S. D. (1992) · Cited by 274
Self-citation
Systematic and nonsystematic processing of majority and minority persuasive communications.
Mackie, D. M. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.41 · Cited by 272
When exemplification fails: Hypocrisy and the motive for self-integrity.
Stone, J., Wiegand, A. W., Cooper, J., & Aronson, E. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.54 · Cited by 268
Attachment, attractiveness, and social interaction: A diary study.
Tidwell, M. O., Reis, H. T., & Shaver, P. R. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.4.729 · Cited by 240
The importance of heritability in psychological research: The case of attitudes.
Tesser, A. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.1.129 · Cited by 240
Two Roads to Positive Regard: Implicit and Explicit Self-Evaluation and Culture
Hetts, J. J., Sakuma, M., & Pelham, B. W. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1391 · Cited by 232
Structure of natural cognitions.
Scott, W. A. (1969) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0027734 · Cited by 230
Biased Processing as a Function of Attitude Accessibility: Making Objective Judgments Subjectively
Houston, D. A., & Fázio, R. H. (1989) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1989.7.1.51 · Cited by 226
Racial ambivalence, value duality, and behavior.
Katz, I., Wackenhut, J., & Hass, R. G. (1986) · Cited by 215
The Psychology of Ego-Involvements; Social Attitudes and Identifications
Guthrie, E. R., Sherif, M., & Cantril, H. (1948) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1417312 · Cited by 192
Clinical handbook of marriage and couples interventions
Halford, W. K., & Markman, H. J. (1997) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 190
The perception of consistency in attitudes
Goethals, G. R., & Reckman, R. F. (1973) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(73)90030-9 · Cited by 176
Thought-induced attitude change: The effects of schema structure and commitment.
Millar, M. G., & Tesser, A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.2.259 · Cited by 173
The disruptive effects of explaining attitudes: The moderating effect of knowledge about the attitude object
Wilson, T. D., Kraft, D., & Dunn, D. S. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(89)90029-2 · Cited by 166
Self-citation
Effects of introspecting about reasons: Inferring attitudes from accessible thoughts.
Wilson, T. D., Hodges, S. D., & LaFleur, S. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.16 · Cited by 158
Self-citation
At a Loss From Words: Verbal Overshadowing of Perceptual Memories
Schooler, J. W., Fiore, S. M., & Brandimonte, M. A. (1997) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60505-8 · Cited by 157
Continuity of attachment across the life span.
Rothbard, J. C., & Shaver, P. R. (1994) · Cited by 156
The different routes to social judgments: Experiential versus informational strategies
Strack, F. (1992) · Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics · Cited by 153
Some recent studies of conflict behavior and drugs.
Miller, N. E. (1961) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0048720 · Cited by 153
Human learning and retention
Hovland, C. I. (1951) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 152
Affective and Identity Priming with Episodically Associated Stimuli
Hermans, D. (1998) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999398379691 · Cited by 141
DIVISION OF PSYCHOLOGY: THE COGNITIVE CONTROL OF MOTIVATION*
Zimbardo, P. G. (1966) · Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1966.tb02395.x · Cited by 138
Affective-cognitive consistency and thought-induced attitude polarization.
Chaiken, S., & Yates, S. (1985) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.49.6.1470 · Cited by 134
Effects of introspecting about reasons: Inferring attitudes from accessible thoughts.
Wilson, T. D., Hodges, S. D., & LaFleur, S. J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.69.1.16 · Cited by 132
Self-citation
Persuasive Communication and Drug Abuse Prevention
Donohew, L., Sypher, H. E., & Bukoski, W. J. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052419 · Cited by 129
Accessible attitudes influence categorization of multiply categorizable objects.
Smith, E. R., Fázio, R. H., & Cejka, M. A. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.5.888 · Cited by 114
Effects of introspection on attitude-behavior consistency: Analyzing reasons versus focusing on feelings
Wilson, T. D., & Dunn, D. S. (1986) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(86)90028-4 · Cited by 112
Self-citation
History of the rise and influence of the spirit of rationalism in Europe
Lecky, W. E. H. (1865) · Longmans, Green and Co eBooks · doi:10.58837/chula.rarebook.2797 · Cited by 110
Cognitive Processes in Attitude Change
Petty, R. E., Priester, J. R., & Wegener, D. T. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315807096-8 · Cited by 107
Personality and social interaction.
Dalton, R. H. (1961) · D C Heath & Co Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1037/14363-000 · Cited by 104
Spontaneous trait inference.
Newman, L. S., & Uleman, J. S. (1989) · Cited by 99
Dissonance motivation: Its nature, persistence, and reinstatement
Higgins, E. T., Rhodewalt, F. T., & Zanna, M. P. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(79)90015-5 · Cited by 98
Knowledge structures and evaluative judgments: Effects of structural variables on judgmental extremity.
Judd, C. M., & Lusk, C. M. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.6.1193 · Cited by 97
Intrinsic dynamics of social judgment.
Vallacher, R. R., Nowak, A. K., & Kaufman, J. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.20 · Cited by 97
On-line and memory-based modification of attitudes: Determinants of message recall-attitude change correspondence.
Mackie, D. M., & Asuncion, A. G. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.59.1.5 · Cited by 95
Cross-Dimension Ambivalence toward Social Groups: Can Ambivalence Affect Intentions to Hire Feminists?
MacDonald, T. K., & Zanna, M. P. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298244009 · Cited by 91
Why Do I Love Thee?: Effects of Repeated Introspections about a Dating Relationship on Attitudes toward the Relationship
Wilson, T. D., & Kraft, D. (1993) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167293194006 · Cited by 86
Self-citation
Made in Memory: Distortions in Recollection After Misleading Information
Loftus, E. F. (1991) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60124-3 · Cited by 81
Self-perception theory: A current perspective.
Fázio, R. H. (1987) · Cited by 74
Trait memory and behavior memory: The effects of alternative pathways on impression judgment response times.
Carlston, D. E., & Skowronski, J. J. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.50.1.5 · Cited by 68
Automatic and controlled processes in prejudice: The role of stereotypes and personal beliefs.
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Cited by 65
Preference of dissonance reduction modes as a function of their order, familiarity and reversibility
Götz‐Marchand, B., Götz, J., & Irle, M. (1974) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420040206 · Cited by 64
Sex Differences in Objective and Projective Dependency Tests: A Meta-Analytic Review
Bornstein, R. F. (1995) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191195002004003 · Cited by 61
Attenuating verbal overshadowing through color retrieval cues.
Brandimonte, M. A., Schooler, J. W., & Gabbino, P. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.23.4.915 · Cited by 61
The influence of earlier relationships on marriage: An attachment perspective.
Furman, W. C., & Flanagan, A. S. (1997) · Cited by 49
Instructions to disregard potentially useful information: The effects of pragmatics on evaluative judgments and recall
Golding, J. M., Fowler, S. A., Long, D. L., & Latta, H. (1990) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(90)90073-9 · Cited by 42
Repression, dissociation, and hypnosis
Kihlstrom, J. F., & Hoyt, I. P. (1990) · Cited by 39
Attitudes and Drug Abuse Prevention: Implications of the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
(2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052419-12 · Cited by 38
Implicit and Self-Attributed Intimacy Motivation
Craig, J., Koestner, R., & Zuroff, D. C. (1994) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407594114001 · Cited by 30
Choose Your Poison: Effects of Lay Beliefs About Mental Processes on Attitude Change
Wilson, T. D., Houston, C. E., & Meyers, J. M. (1998) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1998.16.1.114 · Cited by 25
Self-citation
Can Explanatory Style be Scored from TAT Protocols?
Peterson, C., & Ulrey, L. M. (1994) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167294201010 · Cited by 21
Self-inference processes in emotion.
Olson, J. M., Zanna, M. P., & Herman, C. P. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9780203762950-5 · Cited by 19
Commitment to social deprivation and verbal conditioning.
Cohen, A. R., Greenbaum, C. W., & Mansson, H. H. (1963) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0044485 · Cited by 15
Assessment of Human Motives
Fabing, C. J., & Lindzey, G. E. (1960) · The American Catholic Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/3709553 · Cited by 13
History of the rise and influence of the spirit of rationalism in Europe, Vol 2 (rev. ed.).
Lecky, W. E. H. (1884) · D. Appleton and company eBooks · doi:10.1037/12420-000 · Cited by 11

Sorted by citations

The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822 · Cited by 13,448
“An important point of discussion in this area of research is whether and how individuals can be aware of implicit constructs and processes (e.g., Wilson et al., 2000).”
Background
The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.
Haidt, J. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814 · Cited by 8,048
“Also, because forcing people to introspect to find reasons for their attitudes can change those attitudes temporarily (T. D. Wilson et al., 2000; T. D. Wilson & Schooler, 1991), standard moral judgment interviews might not even provide a valid measure of people's real moral beliefs.”
Background
Dual-Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment, and Social Cognition
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629 · Cited by 5,137
Nature and Operation of Attitudes
Ajzen, I. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.27 · Cited by 4,321
“Thus, when attitudes change, the new attitude overrides but may not replace the old attitude (Wilson et al 2000).”
Background
Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior
Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1 · Cited by 3,984
“Some theorists argue that implicit measures identify implicit attitudes or implicit stereotypes (e.g., Wilson et al., 2000); others prefer to view the measure itself as implicit, but not the attitude (or whatever other concept; Fazio & Olson, 2003).”
Background

See all 2,112

Authors: Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y.
Affiliations: University of Virginia (US)
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2000
Volume: 107
Issue: 1
Pages: 101-126
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.107.1.101
OpenAlex: W2085169214
Cited by: 2,112
References: 184
Citations by year: 2026: 46 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 128 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 103
FWCI: 165.32
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: U.S. Public Health Service (41841)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Keywords: implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, attitude change, attitude measurement, attitude theory
MeSH terms: Affect, Attitude, Humans, Motivation, Object Attachment, Prejudice

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

A model of dual attitudes.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks