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A model of dual attitudes.
Abstract
When an attitude changes from A1 to A2, what happens to A1? Most theories assume, at least implicitly, that the new attitude replaces the former one. The authors argue that a new attitude can override, but not replace, the old one, resulting in dual attitudes. Dual attitudes are defined as different evaluations of the same attitude object: an automatic, implicit attitude and an explicit attitude. The attitude that people endorse depends on whether they have the cognitive capacity to retrieve the explicit attitude and whether this overrides their implicit attitude. A number of literatures consistent with these hypotheses are reviewed, and the implications of the dual-attitude model for attitude theory and measurement are discussed. For example, by including only explicit measures, previous studies may have exaggerated the ease with which people change their attitudes. Even if an explicit attitude changes, an implicit attitude can remain the same.
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“More generally, there are many cases where two cognitive states with opposite content do not lead to any negative affect—a topic widely discussed both in philosophy and in psychology.”
From Conative Dissonance (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000
In the citing paper
“even consciously egalitarian people may hold negative ethnic and racial stereotypes and attitudes,26–31 of which they may not be fully conscious.”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“(2) application of such stereotypes frequently occurs outside conscious awareness26–31”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“as unconscious biases are “habits of mind”,31,45 learned over time through repeated personal experiences and cultural socialization, they are highly resistant to change.46”
From Reducing Racial Bias Among Health Care Providers: Lessons from Social-Cognitive Psychology (2007) · cites this paper as [31]
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“The behavioral correlates and outcomes associated with these automatic attitudes, in particular, need to be explored ( Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 1999 ).”
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“Other distinctions, such as impulsive versus reflexive processes [6] and implicit versus explicit attitudes [3], belong to this same family of dual models (see [7]).”
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“, [14], [30]).”
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“The 51 participants, students at a European university (M(age) = 21.47, SD(age) = 4.60), were recruited for a consumer behavior study.”
BackgroundInfluentialHow to Administer the Initial Preference Task
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“In essence, then, people can maintain undesired and desired elements of attitudes at different levels of conscious awareness.4 This process creates something akin to the “dual attitudes” proposed by Wilson, Lindsey, and Schooler (2000).”
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“To draw the parallel between the present studies and social psychological studies of dual attitude (Wilson et al., 2000), it might be argued that our discrimination task (Experiments 1–4) is an “implicit” measure of subjects’ view of the causal relationship between the cues, whereas our Stage 3…”
ResultCognitive Process Models of Hindsight Bias
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“…also good evidence to suggest that people do not have univalent attitudes and values, making the validity of psychological measures that rely on univalent responses questionable (see also McClosky & Brill, 1983; Spencer-Rodgers, Peng, Wang, & Hou, 2004; Thompson & Zanna, 1995; Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialRace-Based Shifting Standards and Racial Discrimination
Biernat, M., Collins, E. C., Katzarska-Miller, I. I., & Thompson, E. R. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208325195 · Cited by 68
“In this sense, the tendency to shift standards taps one feature of implicit measures in that it involves a response that “people do not view as an expression of their attitude and thus do not attempt to control” (Wilson et al., 2000, p. 104).”
Backgroundde Houwer, J., & Hermans, D. (2010) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203853054 · Cited by 73
Cogswell, A., Alloy, L., Karpinski, A., & Grant, D. A. (2010) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2010.481986 · Cited by 59
“A similar distinction between self-report and implicit assessment has emerged in the social psychological literature, particularly in the domain of attitude research (for a theoretical discussion of this issue, see Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”
BackgroundCognitive Hypnotherapy as a Transdiagnostic Protocol for Emotional Disorders
Alladin, A., & Amundson, J. K. (2016) · International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00207144.2016.1131585 · Cited by 68
Anomalies in implicit attitudes research
Machery, É. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1569 · Cited by 70
“…Buttrick et al., 2020; Charlesworth & Banaji, 2019; Greenwald et al., 1998; Nosek et al., 2007; Rydell & McConnell, 2006; Strack & Deutsch, 2004; Wilson et al., 2000).5 Early research took implicit attitudes to be both unconscious, in the sense that people are unaware of having them (e.g.,…”
BackgroundWyer, N. A. (2010) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2010.28.1.1 · Cited by 67
“Some such theories focus on distinguishing between multiple memory systems (e.g., Devine, 1989; Evans & Over, 1996; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Wilson et al., 2000) while others emphasize the role of distinctive types of information processing (e.”
BackgroundImplicit and explicit interethnic attitudes and ethnic discrimination in hiring
Blommaert, L., van Tubergen, F., & Coenders, M. (2011) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.09.007 · Cited by 67
“For example, both the MODE model (Fazio, 1990) and the dual-attitudes model (Wilson et al., 2000) predict that explicit and implicit attitudes will affect behaviour differently because conscious processes only shape the attitude–behaviour relationship if an individual has both the opportunity and…”
BackgroundScarabis, M., Florack, A., & Gosejohann, S. (2006) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20144 · Cited by 68
Glock, S., & Karbach, J. (2015) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2015.03.006 · Cited by 69
What Defines the Good Person? Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Experts' Models With Lay Prototypes
Smith, K. D., Smith, S. T., & Christopher, J. C. (2007) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022107300279 · Cited by 67
“…accessibility with the speed of associating the same qualities with “good” during the Implicit Associations Test (cf. Greenwald & Banaji, 1995) and (b) correlations of accessibilities with the frequencies of corresponding routine behaviors in the individual’s daily life (cf. Wilson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundWinkielman, P., & Berridge, K. C. (2003) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1046/j.1467-9221.2003.00346.x · Cited by 66
Keatley, D. A., Clarke, D. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2011) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.605451 · Cited by 75
“Several models of the direct and multiplicative effects of explicit and implicit processes on behaviour have been proposed (Back, Schmulke, & Egloff, 2009 ; Fazio & Towles-Schwen, 1999 ; Strack & Deutsch, 2004 ; Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000 ).”
BackgroundWong‐Padoongpatt, G., Zane, N. W. S., Okazaki, S., & Saw, A. (2017) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000217 · Cited by 66
Glock, S., & Klapproth, F. (2017) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2017.04.002 · Cited by 73
Predicting limiting ‘free sugar’ consumption using an integrated model of health behavior
Phipps, D. J., Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2020) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.104668 · Cited by 69
Metadata
- Authors
- Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2000
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 101-126
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2085169214
- Cited by
- 2,112
- References
- 184
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 73 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 128 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 165.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service (41841)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- implicit attitudes, explicit attitudes, attitude change, attitude measurement, attitude theory
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Attitude, Humans, Motivation, Object Attachment, Prejudice
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