Collective memory: Collaborative and individual processes in remembering.
Abstract
Two experiments compared collaborative and individual recall. In Experiment 1, participants encoded pictures and words with a deep or shallow processing task, then recalled them twice either individually or collaboratively. Collaborative groups recalled more than individuals, but less than nominal groups (pooled individuals), thus exhibiting collaborative inhibition. However, group recall appeared to be more stable over time than individual recall. Groups and individuals both showed a picture-superiority effect, a level-of-processing effect, and hypermnesia. In Experiment 2, participants recalled the story "War of the Ghosts" (from F. C. Bartlett, 1932), and again collaborative groups recalled more than individuals, but less than nominal groups. Both the individual and collaborative recalls were highly organized. There was evidence that the collaborative groups tended to rely on the best individual to a greater extent in story than in list recall. Possible social and cognitive mechanisms are considered.
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Individual learning is superior to group learning for relatively simple recall tasks.
“These findings are consistent with previous research on group versus individual learning which showed that group learning is superior to individual learning for relatively complex problem-solving tasks (Laughlin et al. 2002;Laughlin et al. 2006) and that individual learning is superior to group learning for relatively simple recall tasks (e.g., Andersson and Rönnberg 1995;Meudell et al. 1992;Weld”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as Weldon and Bellinger 1997
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“We specifically focused in the present research on collaborative remembering, defined as the recall output of a group of individuals working together to remember shared information or events (see Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBeyond Productivity Loss in Brainstorming Groups
Stroebe, W., Nijstad, B. A., & Rietzschel, E. F. (2010) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(10)43004-x · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“For example, Weldon and Bellinger (1997) and Basden et al. (1997) have found that interactive groups perform more poorly on recall tasks than nominal groups.”
BackgroundCo-witnesses talk: A survey of eyewitness discussion
Paterson, H. M., & Kemp, R. I. (2005) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160512331316334 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Remembering as a social process
Weldon, M. S. (2000) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(00)80018-3 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citationSpinning the stories of our lives
Marsh, E. J., & Tversky, B. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1001 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“…generally, memory must be considered within its social context; the presence, feedback, and goals of other people changes memory in numerous laboratory paradigms (e.g. Gabbert, Memon, & Allan, 2003; Loftus, 1997; Roediger, Meade, & Bergman, 2001; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997; Wells & Bradfield, 1998).”
BackgroundCollaboration Both Hurts and Helps Memory
Rajaram, S. (2011) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721411403251 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“…recall (in which no external retrieval cue is provided to aid recall and participants are asked to reproduce all the information they studied), either working once again alone or working in groups that are typically composed of strangers (e.g., Blumen & Rajaram, 2008; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
Stone, C. B., Coman, A., Brown, A. D., Koppel, J., & Hirst, W. C. (2012) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691611427303 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“Although one could examine how the concept of relatedness is used across experiments, we feel that it is well enough specified at present to be heuristically useful.”
Collaboration reduces the frequency of false memories in older and younger adults.
Ross, M., Spencer, S. J., Blatz, C. W., & Restorick, E. (2008) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.85 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Pasupathi, M. (2007) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210701256456 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“In social contexts, memory is negotiated in conversations, including agreement to hear a story as well as disputing details and interpretations (Hirst, Manier, & Apetroaia, 1997; Manier, Pinner, & Hirst, 1996; Ross, 1997; Ross & Holmberg, 1990; Weldon, 2000; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundResultMeegan, S. P., & Berg, C. A. (2002) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250143000283 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“…evidence suggesting that although collaborative groups frequently perform better than individuals, they rarely perform up to the levels of randomly pooled individual scores (Andersson & Ronnberg, 1995, 1996; Basden, Basden, Bryner, & Thomas, 1997; Lamm & Trommsdorf, 1973; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundBarber, S. J., Harris, C. B., & Rajaram, S. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000037 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“…members of collaborative groups typically have superior subsequent individual memory than individuals who were previously members of nominal groups (e.g., Basden, Basden, & Henry, 2000; Blumen & Rajaram, 2008; Harris et al., 2012; Rajaram & Pereira-Pasarin, 2007; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
When two is too many: Collaborative encoding impairs memory
Barber, S. J., Rajaram, S., & Aron, A. P. (2010) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.38.3.255 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“Collaborative recall benefits later individual memory, because individuals are re-exposed to study stimuli in a collaborative-recall environment (see, e.g., Weldon & Bellinger, 1997 ); however, the present findings suggest that collaborative encoding impairs later individual (and collaborative) memory because of subop…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMarion, S. B., & Thorley, C. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000071 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“…members (e.g., Finlay et al., 2000, Exp. 1 and 3; Meade & Roediger, 2009; Wright & Klumpp, 2004), several others have shown clear postcollaborative advantage effects (e.g., Barber & Rajaram, 2011a, 2011b; Blumen & Stern, 2011; Choi et al., 2014; Stephenson & Wagner, 1989; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
InfluentialThe Group-Member Mind Trade-Off
Waytz, A. G., & Young, L. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611423546 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“These previous studies demonstrate that group memory capacity correlates with the memory capacity of a specific group member (Weldon & Bellinger, 1997), individual consumer preferences correlate with collective preferences (Goel, Hofman, Lahaie, Pennock, & Watts, 2010), and American individuals’…”
BackgroundTransactive Memory Systems: A Mechanistic Analysis of Emergent Group Memory
Theiner, G. (2013) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-012-0128-x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“In experimental memory research, the “reductionist” outcome described by Pavitt is known as collaborative inhibition (Weldon and Bellinger 1997; Basden et al. 1997).”
BackgroundA Dynamic Model of Individual and Collective Learning Amid Disruption
Anderson, E. G., & Lewis, K. (2013) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2013.0854 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“Other studies comparing recall by individuals and by groups also show that knowledge embedded in the social structures of groups is less prone to decay than knowledge embedded in individuals (Hinsz 1990, Weldon and Bellinger 1997).”
BackgroundGabbert, F., Memon, A., & Wright, D. B. (2006) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.03.009 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“Such an effect has previously been demonstrated in tests of joint retrieval of word lists (see, Basden, Basden, Bryner, & Thomas, 1997; Meudell, Hitch, & Boyle, 1995; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997; Wright & Klumpp, 2004).”
MethodDISENTANGLING COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES
Pratt, M. G. (2004) · Research on managing groups and teams · doi:10.1016/s1534-0856(02)05007-7 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Collective memories of three wars in United States history in younger and older adults
Zaromb, F. M., Butler, A. C., Agarwal, P. K., & Roediger, H. L., III (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0369-7 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Going shopping and identifying landmarks: does collaboration improve older people's memory?
Ross, M., Spencer, S. J., Linardatos, L., Lam, K. C. H., & Perunovic, M. (2004) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1023 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
What people believe about memory
Magnussen, S. J., Andersson, J., Cornoldi, C., Béni, R. D., Endestad, T., Goodman, G. S., Helstrup, T., Koriat, A., Larsson, M. U., Melinder, A. M. D., et al. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210600646716 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
The Role of Repeated Retrieval in Shaping Collective Memory
Roediger, H. L., III, Zaromb, F. M., & Butler, A. C. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511626999.009 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Collaborative false recall in the DRM procedure: Effects of group size and group pressure
Thorley, C., & Dewhurst, S. A. (2006) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440600872068 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“Levels of false recall are then measured and compared to those of equivalent sized nominal groups (eg, Basden, Basden, Bryner, & Thomas, 1997 ; Basden, Basden, Thomas, & Souphasith, 1998 ; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997 ).”
MethodWright, D. F. B., Mathews, S. A., & Skagerberg, E. M. (2005) · Journal of experimental psychology. Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.11.3.200 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“The first type involves presenting people with the same set of stimuli and then having them free recall the items either individually or in groups (e.g., Basden, Basden, & Henry, 2000; Clark, Hori, Putnam, & Martin, 2000; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997; Wright & Klumpp, 2004).”
BackgroundCollaborative narration of the past and extraversion
McLean, K. C., & Pasupathi, M. (2006) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.11.006 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Further, talking about the past may provide more coherence and certainty in one’s stories (Pasupathi, 2001; Rimé et al., 1991; Thorne, 2000; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundCompensating strategies in collaborative remembering in very old couples
JOHANSSON, N. O., Andersson, J., & Rönnberg, J. (2005) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2005.00465.x · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Collective interviewing of suspects.
Vrij, A., Jundi, S., Hope, L., Hillman, J., Gahr, E., Leal, S., Warmelink, L., Mann, S. A., Vernham, Z., & Granhag, P. A. (2012) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2011.12.002 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Your words are my words: Effects of acting together on encoding
Eskenazi, T., Doerrfeld, A., Logan, G. D., Knoblich, G., & Sebanz, N. (2012) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2012.725058 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Benefits, costs, and challenges of collaboration for learning and memory.
Andrews‐Todd, J., & Rapp, D. N. (2015) · Translational Issues in Psychological Science · doi:10.1037/tps0000025 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The effect of expertise on collaborative problem solving
Nokes‐Malach, T. J., Meade, M. L., & Morrow, D. G. (2012) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546783.2011.642206 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“The effect of expertise on collaborative problem solving”
BackgroundResultCollaborative inhibition is due to the product, not the process, of recalling in groups
Wright, D. B., & Klumpp, A. (2004) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196740 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“This is called collaborative inhibition ( Weldon & Bellinger, 1997 ) and has been shown in several papers for free recall (e.g., Andersson & Ronnberg, 1995, 1996; Meudell, Hitch, & Boyle, 1995; Weldon, Blair, & Huebsch, 2000; see Thompson, 2002, for a review).”
BackgroundFrom individual to collective memory: Theoretical and empirical perspectives
Barnier, A. J., & Sutton, J. D. (2008) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09541440701828274 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“…produced by a group in remembering together * though more than any one of the members could have produced alone * is typically less than the pooled sum of information produced by the same number of individuals remembering alone (Basden, Basden, Bryber, & Thomas, 1997; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundCranney, J., Ahn, M., McKinnon, R., Morris, S., & Watts, K. (2009) · European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440802413505 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“In laboratory experiments it has been shown that during initial group recall of study material, group performance is superior to individual but not to nominal group performance; however, the subsequent individual memory performance is better for those who initially recalled in a collaborative than in a nominal group (…”
BackgroundPasupathi, M., & Hoyt, T. (2010) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210902992917 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Consensus Collaboration Enhances Group and Individual Recall Accuracy
Harris, C. B., Barnier, A. J., & Sutton, J. D. (2011) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2011.608590 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“…others adopted idiosyncratic strategies, which made valid comparison of different collaboration styles difficult (see also 182 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, 2012, 65 (1) varying results for accuracy in free-for-all groups reported by Takahashi, 2007; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRecalling an event one year later: the impact of props, drawing and a prior interview
Salmon, K., & Pipe, M. (2000) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(200003/04)14:2 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Collaboration can improve individual recognition memory: Evidence from immediate and delayed tests
Rajaram, S., & Pereira-Pasarin, L. P. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03194034 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“As was noted earlier, even though collaboration leads to reduction in group memory in free recall due to retrieval blocking, it nevertheless increases later individual recall (Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
InfluentialDoes test delay eliminate collaborative inhibition?
Takahashi, M., & Saito, S. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210344000521 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Congleton, A. R., & Rajaram, S. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0035974 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“As such, we predict that the more times a group of people collaborate together (Multiple Collaboration), the more likely a strong group-level organization will emerge (Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Collaboration Principle in Multimedia Learning
Jonassen, D. H., Lee, C. B., Yang, C.-C., & Laffey, J. M. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.017 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Age differences in collaborative memory: the role of retrieval manipulations
Meade, M. L., & Roediger, H. L., III (2009) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.37.7.962 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Steiner, 1972) for individuals working in collaborative groups is referred to as collaborative inhibition (Bouchard & Hare, 1970; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997 ).”
InfluentialShared encoding and the costs and benefits of collaborative recall.
Harris, C. B., Barnier, A. J., & Sutton, J. D. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0028906 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Sociocultural mediators of remembering: An extension of Bartlett's method of repeated reproduction
Wagoner, B., & Gillespie, A. (2013) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12059 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Collaborative learning effects when students have complete or incomplete knowledge
Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2018) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3444 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The Role of Familiarity Among Group Members in Collaborative Inhibition and Social Contagion
Peker, M., & Tekcan, A. Í. (2009) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335.40.3.111 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Barber, S. J., Rajaram, S., & Fox, E. B. (2012) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2012.30.1.121 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“This is the traditional analysis used to examine collaborative inhibition (e.g., Weldon & Bellinger, 1997), and thus we replicated the standard collaborative inhibition effect.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA review of the collective interviewing approach to detecting deception in pairs
Vernham, Z., & Vrij, A. (2015) · Crime Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/23744006.2015.1051756 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“…than collaborative groups due to collaborative inhibition (the effect that occurs when a group of people working together remember and recall more than any one individual but recall less than their predicted potential) (Basden, Basden, Bryner, & Thomas III, 1997; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
Backgroundvan der Land, S. F., Schouten, A. P., van den Hooff, B., & Feldberg, F. (2011) · Journal of Virtual Worlds Research · doi:10.4101/jvwr.v4i3.6126 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Premo, J., Cavagnetto, A. R., Davis, W. B., & Brickman, P. (2018) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.17-08-0176 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“There is also significant research noting a consistent negative effect (termed “collaborative inhibition”; Weldon and Bellinger, 1997; Barber et al., 2015) of collaborative performance of groups over individual performance (i.e., when combining the contribution of each individual student…”
BackgroundCollaborative remembering of emotional events: The case of Rabin's assassination
Antar, A. Y., & Nachson, I. (2005) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210444000502 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Moreover, because the participants do not want to slow down the reconstruction of the story, they tend to report only those details that can be easily and speedily retrieved from memory (Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialInvoking “collective memory”: mapping the emergence of a concept in archival science
Jacobsen, T. E., Punzalan, R. L., & Hedstrom, M. L. (2013) · Archives and Museum Informatics · doi:10.1007/s10502-013-9199-4 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Highly-cited in the WoS data, Weldon and Bellinger (1997) examined the social and cognitive mechanisms of individual and collaborative recall in the experimental tradition of Bartlett (1932). Neuroscientist Damasio (1994/2005, 1999) pioneered studies of the role of emotion in cognition. Kansteiner (2002) argues that r…”
BackgroundMaswood, R., Rasmussen, A. S., & Rajaram, S. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000468 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“The most likely explanation for these discrepancies is that the past findings have been reported for different memory stimuli that were nonautobiographical in nature, such as word lists or emotional films presented by the experimenter (e.g., Weldon & Bellinger, 1997; Wessel et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBogenstätter, Y., Tschan, F., Semmer, N. K., Spychiger, M., Breuer, M., & Marsch, S. C. U. (2009) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720809336734 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“…2008), with other studies finding a curvilinear effect (Tindale & Sheffey, 2002), inhibiting effects of collaboration on collective remembering (Weldon & Bellinger, 1997), reduced effort with shared responsibility (Weldon & Gargano, 1988), and that groups may leave the “burden of remembering”…”
BackgroundThe testing effect: The role of feedback and collaboration in a tertiary classroom setting
Vojdanoska, M., Cranney, J., & Newell, B. R. (2009) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1630 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“This finding could be explained in terms of the indirect effects of collaborative inhibition during the initial test, as suggested by the trend towards superior nominal group performance compared to collaborative group performance ( Weldon & Bellinger, 1997 ).”
BackgroundResultThe effects of conformity on recognition judgements
Reysen, M. B. (2004) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210344000602 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Cognition and the Creation of Ideas
Smith, S. M., & Ward, T. B. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0023 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Social suggestibility to central and peripheral misinformation
Dalton, A. L., & Daneman, M. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210500495073 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Collaborative recall in married and unacquainted dyads
Gould, O. N., Osborn, C., Krein, H., & Mortenson, M. (2002) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250143000292 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Type of recall task (word vs. story recall), and group size (dyads vs. larger groups) have also been shown, in at least some studies, to mediate process loss (e.g., Basden, Basden, & Henry, 2000; Weldon & Bellinger, 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPasupathi, M., Weeks, T. L., & Rice, C. (2006) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x06289425 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Henkel, L. A., & Rajaram, S. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0023106 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“This phenomenon, known as collaborative inhibition (Weldon & Bellinger, 1997), occurs when collaborative groups are compared with nominal groups (i.e., groups in name only that are composed of an equal number of individuals working alone).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialChoi, H., Kensinger, E. A., & Rajaram, S. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000327 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Participants in collaborative conditions were instructed to collaborate in a freeflowing form (Weldon & Bellinger, 1997) where they were free to contribute in any order, discuss their recall and settle their disagreements as they wished.”
InfluentialDoes jury deliberation really improve jurors' memories?
Pritchard, M. E., & Keenan, J. M. (2002) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.816 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
- Authors
- Weldon, M. S., & Bellinger, K. D.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1997-09
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1160-1175
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2018734806
- Cited by
- 498
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 2.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- collective memory, collaborative recall, collaborative inhibition, picture superiority effect, levels of processing, hypermnesia, story recall, memory organization, social memory
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Attention, Female, Group Processes, Humans, Individuality, Male, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Mental Recall, Verbal Behavior, Verbal Learning, Writing
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