Cited by 1,501Psychotherapy Techniques and ApplicationsCounseling Practices and SupervisionCounseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 15 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Factor structure of the working alliance inventory

Tracey, Terence J., Kokotovic, Anna M.·1989·Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

DOI 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207

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Abstract

The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) was completed after the 1st psychotherapy session by 84 university counseling center clients and 15 therapists rating their work with 123 clients

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Crossref · 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207

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Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size.
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Effects of Therapeutic Alliance and Metacognition on Outcome in a Brief Psychological Treatment for Borderline Personality Disorder
Dimaggio, G., Maillard, P., MacBeth, A. M., & Kramer, U. (2019) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.2019.1610295 · Cited by 13
“…difference, Kramer, Kolly, et al., 2014) and the MOTR condition outperformed the GPM condition with regard to adherence to the individualized motiveoriented therapeutic relationship (t (1, 59) = 10.62; p< .00+) Instruments Working Alliance Inventory – Short Form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
MethodInfluential
Identifying Unique Contributions of the Coach–Athlete Working Alliance, Psychological Resilience and Perceived Stress on Athlete Burnout among Norwegian Junior Athletes
Raanes, E. F. W., Hrozanova, M., & Moen, F. (2019) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports7090212 · Cited by 13
“A 12-item short form of the WAI was used to assess the quality of the coach–athlete relationship [39].”
BackgroundMethod
The Relationship Between Treatment Alliance, Social Climate, and Treatment Readiness in Long-Term Forensic Psychiatric Care: An Explorative Study
Gaab, S., Brazil, I. A., de Vries, M. G., & Bulten, B. H. (2020) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x19899609 · Cited by 13
“The IWAI is an adjusted version of the Working Alliance Inventory–Short (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), which focuses on the treatment alliance with a singular therapist.”
Method
Longitudinal changes in therapeutic alliance with people with psychosis: Relationship between client and therapist assessments
Hasson‐Ohayon, I., de Jong, S., Igra, L., Carter, S., Faith, L. A., & Lysaker, P. H. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2572 · Cited by 14
The Role of Self-efficacy in the Recovery Trajectory of Mental Health Consumers
Wu, H., Yang, C.-Y., & Chen, Y.-C. (2021) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcab025 · Cited by 14
The Working Alliance Inventory: Modification and use with people with serious mental illnesses in a vocational rehabilitation program.
Goldberg, R. W., Rollins, A. L., & McNary, S. W. (2004) · Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal · doi:10.2975/27.2004.267.270 · Cited by 13
The Therapeutic Alliance in Multicultural Practice
Coleman, D. K. (2000) · Psychoanalytic Social Work · doi:10.1300/j032v07n02_04 · Cited by 13
“In a review of approximately forty articles and research reports on the therapeutic alliance, only one referenced ethnic or cultural differences by stating that the study sample was largely white and middle class (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Emotional availability in psychotherapy: The usefulness and validity of the Emotional Availability Scales for analyzing the psychotherapeutic relationship
Söderberg, A. K., Elfors, C., Larsson, M. H., Falkenström, F., & Holmqvist, R. (2013) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2013.826833 · Cited by 13
“An interesting finding by Zimmerman and McDonald (1995) might mitigate this difficulty somewhat.”
BackgroundMethod
Working alliance as a mediator and moderator between expectations for counseling success and counseling outcome among Korean clients
Yoo, S., Hong, S., Sohn, N., & O’Brien, K. M. (2014) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-014-9320-2 · Cited by 14
“The Working Alliance Inventory—Short Form (WAI-S; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989) is an abbreviated version of WAI (Horvath and Greenberg 1989) and is used to assess working alliance as operationalized by Bordin (1979).”
Method
Feasibility and Acceptability of Bibliotherapy and Telephone Sessions for the Treatment of Late-Life Anxiety Disorders
Brenes, G. A., McCall, W. V., Williamson, J. D., & Stanley, M. A. (2009) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317110903344968 · Cited by 13
“The Working Alliance Inventory Short Form (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) and the Client Satisfaction Questionnaire (CSQ; Larsen, Attkisson, Hargreaves, & Nguyen, 1979) were also administered upon completion of treatment.”
Affirmative Adaptations of the Relationship Checkup to Meet the Needs of LGBTQ Couples
Gray, T. D., Dovala, T., & Córdova, J. (2022) · Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy · doi:10.1080/15332691.2022.2149652 · Cited by 12
“The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-SR; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was used to assess the quality of the therapeutic alliance.”
Method
In Context: Lessons About Adolescent Unipolar Depression From the Improving Mood With Psychoanalytic and Cognitive Therapies Trial
Loades, M. E., Midgley, N., Herring, G. T., O’Keeffe, S., Goodyer, I. M., Barrett, B. M., Byford, S., Dubicka, B., Hill, J., Holland, F., et al. (2023) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2023.03.017 · Cited by 13
Convergence and divergence in the delivery of cognitive therapy in two randomized clinical trials
Webb, C. A., DeRubeis, R. J., Hollon, S. D., Dimidjian, S., Amsterdam, J. D., & Shelton, R. C. (2013) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2013.05.003 · Cited by 12
“Previous research suggests that the CB scale can be rated reliably (Hill et al., 1992).2 Working Alliance Inventory observer-rated version, short form (WAI-O-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) The WAI-O-S is a 12-item observer-rated measure designed to assess the therapeutic alliance.”
Do caregivers’ perspectives matter? Working alliances and treatment outcomes in trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy with children and adolescents
Loos, S., Tutus, D., Kilian, R., & Goldbeck, L. (2020) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1753939 · Cited by 12
“The short form (WAI-S (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989)) is a 12-item scale, which includes three subscales: goal (agreement on goals in therapy), task (agreement on achieving these goals), and bond (between patient and therapist).”
Background
Clinical Efficacy and Cost-Effectiveness of Imagery Rescripting Only Compared to Imagery Rescripting and Schema Therapy in Adult Patients With PTSD and Comorbid Cluster C Personality Disorder: Study Design of a Randomized Controlled Trial
van den End, A., Dekker, J., Beekman, A. T. F., Aarts, I., Snoek, A., Blankers, M., Vriend, C., van den Heuvel, O. A., & Thomaes, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.633614 · Cited by 15
Latinx Patients’ Perceptions of Culturally Sensitive Health Care and their Association with Patient Satisfaction, Patient-Provider Communication, and Therapeutic Alliance
Roncoroni, J., Frank, M. G., Hudson, A., Whitaker, S. W., Edelman, A., Garcia, P., Leeper, E., Carrasco, V., Melendez, D. P., & Ratchford, J. L. (2021) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-021-00994-w · Cited by 12
Implementation, efficacy and cost effectiveness of the unified protocol in a blended format for the transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders: a study protocol for a multicentre, randomised, superiority controlled trial in the Spanish National Health System
Osma, J., Martínez‐García, L., Péris-Baquero, Ó., Haro, M. V. N., González‐Pérez, A., & Suso‐Ribera, C. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-054286 · Cited by 14
Experiences when implementing enhanced cognitive behavioral therapy as a standard treatment for anorexia nervosa in outpatients at a public specialized eating-disorder treatment unit
Keßler, U., Kleppe, M. M., Rekkedal, G. Å., Rø, Ø., & Danielsen, Y. S. (2022) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-022-00536-7 · Cited by 12
“Abbreviations AN: Anorexia nervosa; ANTOP: Anorexia Nervosa Treatment of OutPatients; BAI: Beck anxiety inventory; BDI: Beck depression inventory; BMI: Body mass index; CBT: Cognitive behavioral therapy; CBT-E: Enhanced cognitive behavioral therapy; CIA: Clinical impairment assessment questionnaire; DSM-5: Diagnostic…”
MethodInfluential
Enhancing working alliance through positive emotional experience: A cross-lag analysis
Notsu, H., Iwakabe, S., & Thoma, N. C. (2022) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2022.2124893 · Cited by 15
“At the end of every session, the patients answered the 12-item, short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Adaptation d'une échelle d'alliance thérapeutique au contexte des consultations mère-nourrisson
Hervé, M.-J., White‐Koning, M., Paradis-Guennou, M., Guiraud, A.-M., Picot, M., Grandjean, H., & Maury, M. (2008) · Devenir · doi:10.3917/dev.081.0065 · Cited by 12
Evaluation of the quality of collaboration between the client and the therapist in phobia treatments
Wrzesien, M., Burkhardt, J., Botella, C., & Alcañíz, M. (2012) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1016/j.intcom.2012.09.001 · Cited by 12
Psychometric Properties of the Turkish Working Alliance Inventory- Short Form
Gülüm, İ. V., Uluç, S., & Soygüt, G. (2016) · Turkish Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5080/u18260 · Cited by 12
Effects of Live and Educational Music Therapy on Working Alliance and Trust With Patients on Detoxification Unit: A Four-Group Cluster-Randomized Trial
Silverman, M. J. (2016) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2016.1197263 · Cited by 12
“The Working Alliance Inventory—Short Form (WAI-S) (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item instrument composed of three four-item subscales: task (the level of agreement between the provider and client on what should be done in treatment), bond (the strength of the relationship between provider and client), and goals (…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
General and specific factors of working alliance in parent training: A bifactor exploratory structural equation modelling approach
Hukkelberg, S. S., & Ogden, T. (2017) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1330574 · Cited by 12
“…Kokotovic, 1989), which is a commonly used instrument in PMTO (e.g., Hagen et al., 2011; Hukkelberg & Ogden, 2013; Maaskant, van Rooij, Overbeek, Oort, & Hermanns, 2016; Thijssen, Vink, Muris, & de Ruiter, 2016) that has proven high reliability (Hatcher & Gillaspy, 2006; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Therapeutic alliance in dietetic practice for weight loss: Insights from health coaching
Nagy, A., McMahon, A., Tapsell, L. C., Deane, F. P., & Arenson, D. (2018) · Nutrition & Dietetics · doi:10.1111/1747-0080.12405 · Cited by 12
Does the two-chair dialogue intervention facilitate processing of emotions more efficiently than basic Rogerian conditions?
Stiegler, J. R., Molde, H., & Schanche, E. (2018) · European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling · doi:10.1080/13642537.2018.1495245 · Cited by 13
“The Working Alliance Inventory – Short Version, Patient (WAI-S-P; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item self-report measure in which the patient is asked to rate his or her experience of the working alliance.”
Method
Alexithymia and therapeutic alliance: a multiple case study comparing good and poor outcome cases
da Silva, A. C. N., Vasco, A. B., & Watson, J. C. (2018) · Research in Psychotherapy Psychopathology Process and Outcome · doi:10.4081/ripppo.2018.313 · Cited by 17
“The short version has 12 items, four for each dimension (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Predictors of response to brief CBT in patients with cardiopulmonary conditions.
Hundt, N. E., Renn, B. N., Sansgiry, S., Petersen, N. J., Stanley, M. A., Kauth, M. R., Naik, A. D., Kunik, M. E., & Cully, J. A. (2018) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000595 · Cited by 11
Predictors of working alliance in cognitive behaviour therapy adapted for traumatic brain injury
Zelencich, L. M., Kazantzis, N., Wong, D. K., McKenzie, D. P., Downing, M. G., & Ponsford, J. L. (2019) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2019.1600554 · Cited by 12
The role of the working alliance in psychological treatment of substance use disorder outpatients
Gidhagen, Y., Holmqvist, R., Philips, B., & Falkenström, F. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1807639 · Cited by 12
“Since the therapist-rated version of the WAI-SR was not validated at the time the study started, the therapists’ ratings of the alliance were measured with Working Alliance Inventory – Short Form (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Cross‐cultural validation of factor structure in the Japanese Counselor Burnout Inventory
Yagi, D. T., Lee, J., Puig, A., & Lee, S. M. (2011) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5884.2011.00469.x · Cited by 12
Doing Research on the Effectiveness of Psychotherapy and Psychotherapy Training: A person-centered/experiential perspective / Forschung zur Effektivität von Psychotherapie und Psychotherapietraining: Eine Personzentrierte/Experienzielle Perspektive / Investigar sobre la eficacia de la psicoterapia y de la formación en psicoterapia: una perspectiva centrada en la persona/experiencial
Elliott, R., & Zucconi, A. (2006) · Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies · doi:10.1080/14779757.2006.9688398 · Cited by 12
Acupuncture, or non-directive counselling versus usual care for the treatment of depression: a pilot study
Schroer, S., & MacPherson, H. (2009) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-10-3 · Cited by 12
Negative Treatment Effects in Dyadic Psychotherapy: A Focus on Prevention and Intervention Strategies
Nolan, S. A., Strassle, C. G., Roback, H. B., & Binder, J. L. (2004) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-004-2526-6 · Cited by 12
An empirical model of therapeutic process for psychiatric emergency room clients with dual disorders
Loneck, B. M., Banks, S. M., Way, B. B., & Bonaparte, E. (2002) · Social Work Research · doi:10.1093/swr/26.3.132 · Cited by 12
The Capacity for Self-Observation in Psychotherapy
Falkenström, F. (2012) · DiVA (Linkoping University) · Cited by 12
Transdiagnostic and tailored internet intervention to improve mental health among university students: Research protocol for a randomized controlled trial
Berman, A. H., Topooco, N., Lindfors, P., Bendtsen, M., Lindner, P., Molander, O., Kraepelien, M., Sundström, C., Talebizadeh, N., Engström, K., et al. (2024) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-024-07986-1 · Cited by 9
Measuring rapport in neuropsychological assessment: the Barnett Rapport Questionnaire
Barnett, M. D., Parsons, T. D., & Moore, J. M. (2021) · Applied Neuropsychology: Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2019.1663523 · Cited by 14
“The Working Alliance Inventory – Short Form (WAI-SF; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a self-report measure used to ascertain the strength of the therapeutic relationship.”
Method
Opening the Career Counseling Black Box: Behavioral Mechanisms of Empathy and Working Alliance
Klonek, F. E., Will, T., Ianiro-Dahm, P. M., & Kauffeld, S. (2019) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072719865159 · Cited by 11
“We used the short WAI-S version from Tracey and Kokotovic (1989).”
Method
Therapeutic alliance in the treatment of adolescent substance misuse: a systematic review
Sulaman, I., Hartley, S., & Elvins, R. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12671 · Cited by 14
Cognitive Therapy, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, and Behavior Therapy for the Treatment of Chronic Pain: Predictors and Moderators of Treatment Response
Burns, J. W., Jensen, M. P., Thorn, B. E., Lillis, T. A., Carmody, J., Gerhart, J. I., & Keefe, F. J. (2024) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2024.01.003 · Cited by 13
COMPASS: Computational mapping of patient-therapist alliance strategies with language modeling
Lin, B., Bouneffouf, D., Landa, Y., Jespersen, R., Corcoran, C. M., & Cecchi, G. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03379-3 · Cited by 18
“We propose leveraging large language models (LLMs) to quantify patient-therapist alliance by mapping dialogue turns onto established WAI dimensions [6, 7, 8].”
The INSPIRED study: a randomised controlled trial of the Whole Person Model of disease self-management for people with type 2 diabetes
Clarke, D. M., Baird, D. E., Perera, D. N., Hagger, V. L., & Teede, H. J. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-134 · Cited by 11
“The Working Alliance Inventory – Short Form, Participant/Therapist Version (WAI) is a valid measure of treatment alliance [44] and will be completed by participants in the intervention group following phone sessions at 1, 3 and 6 weeks, and by the Health Coach at these times.”
Method
The Effects of the Coach-Athlete Working Alliance on Affect and Burnout Among High Level Coaches
Myhre, K., & Moen, F. (2017) · Central European Journal of Sport Sciences and Medicine · doi:10.18276/cej.2017.2-05 · Cited by 12
How to ensure fidelity in implementing an evidence based teen pregnancy prevention curriculum
Barbee, A. P., Antle, B. F., Langley, C. N., Cunningham, M. R., Whiteside, D., Sar, B. K., Archuleta, A. J., Karam, E. A., & Borders, K. W. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106175 · Cited by 11
Cognitive behavioural group therapy for insomnia (CBGT-I) in patients undergoing haemodialysis: a randomized clinical trial
Shareh, H., Hasheminik, M., & Jamalinik, M. (2022) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465822000364 · Cited by 12
“Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form (WAI-S; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989) The WAI-S is a reliable, valid and widely used tool for measuring therapeutic alliance.”
Method
Agreement in Patient-Therapist Alliance Ratings and Its Relation to Dropout and Outcome in a Large Sample of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Panic Disorder
Moshe-Cohen, R., Kivity, Y., Huppert, J., Barlow, D. H., Gorman, J., Shear, K., & Woods, S. (2022) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2022.2124131 · Cited by 9
“The WAI-SF (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item self-report scale used to assess the therapeutic relationship between therapist and client.”
MethodInfluential
Relationship between therapist empathy and client-perceived working alliance in China: A multilevel modelling analysis
Lei, Y., & Duan, C. (2014) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2014.882812 · Cited by 11
“The reliability estimated for the total WAI-S score was .92 (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Does a Clinical Psychology Education Moderate Relationships Between Personality or Emotional Adjustment and Performance As a Clinical Psychologist?
O’Donovan, A., & Dyck, M. J. (2005) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.42.3.285 · Cited by 11
“Multitrait-multimethod analysis has established the construct validity (Horvath & Greenberg, 1986) and the distinctiveness of the different WAI scales (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
The Predictive Role of Mastery Experience in Chinese Counselors’ Counseling Self-efficacy
Hu, B., Duan, C., Guangrong, J., & Yu, L. (2014) · International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling · doi:10.1007/s10447-014-9221-4 · Cited by 11
Clinical Supervision for the Treatment of Adults With Severe Mental Illness: Pertinent Issues When Assisting Graduate Nursing Students
Buck, K. D., & Lysaker, P. H. (2010) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6163.2010.00258.x · Cited by 11
Brief Therapy at a University Counseling Center: Working Alliance, Readiness to Change, and Symptom Severity
Mahon, M., Laux, J. M., Wise, S. M., Ritchie, M. H., Piazza, N. J., & Tiamiyu, M. F. (2015) · Journal of College Counseling · doi:10.1002/jocc.12017 · Cited by 14
Study protocol for a single-blind, randomised controlled, non-inferiority trial of internet-based versus face-to-face cognitive behaviour therapy for obsessive–compulsive disorder
Rück, C., Lundström, L., Flygare, O., Enander, J., Bottai, M., Mataix‐Cols, D., & Andersson, E. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022254 · Cited by 13
Die therapeutische Allianz
Hentschel, U. (2005) · Psychotherapeut · doi:10.1007/s00278-005-0446-x · Cited by 11
Predictors and impact of the working alliance in the neuropsychological rehabilitation of patients with multiple sclerosis
Rosti-Otajärvi, E. M., Mäntynen, A., Koivisto, K. J., Huhtala, H., & Hämäläinen, P. I. (2014) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2013.12.039 · Cited by 13
De werkalliantie: visies op een bruikbaar concept en de meting ervan
Vervaeke, G., & Vertommen, H. (1993) · Tijdschrift voor Psychotherapie · doi:10.1007/bf03061761 · Cited by 11
The role of the therapeutic alliance and its relationship to treatment outcome and client motivation in an adolescent substance abuse treatment setting.
Darchuk, A. J. (2007) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 11
Targeting excessive worry with internet-based extinction therapy: a randomised controlled trial with mediation analysis and economical evaluation
Andersson, E., Ljótsson, B., Hedman-Lagerlöf, M., Nygren, L., Persson, M., Rosengren, K., Gezelius, A., Andersson, L., Sundquist, T., Ivanov, V. Z., et al. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720000781 · Cited by 10
Effectiveness of and processes related to internet-delivered acceptance and commitment therapy for adolescents with anxiety disorders: a randomized controlled trial
Nissling, L., Weineland, S., Vernmark, K., Radvogin, E., Engström, A.-K., Schmidt, S., Nieto Granberg, E., Larsson, E., & Hursti, T. (2023) · Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome · doi:10.4081/ripppo.2023.681 · Cited by 15
Study protocol and methods for Easing Pelvic Pain Interventions Clinical Research Program (EPPIC): a randomized clinical trial of brief, low-intensity, transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral therapy vs education/support for urologic chronic pelvic pain syndrome (UCPPS)
Lackner, J. M., Jaccard, J. J., Quigley, B. M., Ablove, T. S., Danforth, T. L., Firth, R. S., Gudleski, G. D., Krasner, S. S., Radziwon, C. D., Vargovich, A. M., et al. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-06554-9 · Cited by 10
“Non-specific mediators common to both EDU and CBT include treatment expectancy (Credibility/Expectancy Questionnaire) [98] which will be assessed at the end of session 1 (week 1), while therapeutic alliance (Working Alliance Inventory) [118] which be assessed at weeks 1, 3, 5, 8, and 10.”
Method
“You can’t really have a relationship with them because they just ask you questions”: understanding adolescent dropout – an empirical single case study
Cirasola, A., Szegedi, D., Fonagy, P., & Midgley, N. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1381901 · Cited by 10
The correlation of trust as part of the therapeutic alliance in physical therapy and their relation to outcomes for patients with chronic low back pain
Zimney, K. J., Puentedura, E. J., Kolber, M. J., & Louw, A. (2024) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2024.2338428 · Cited by 13
“Content and construct validity have been supported in previous research (Hatcher and Gillaspy, 2006; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989).”
A Hong Kong study of working alliance inventory short form – therapist
Hsu, S., & Yu, C. K.-C. (2017) · Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/21507686.2017.1313285 · Cited by 10
“Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) proposed a short-form scale (WAI-S) with 12 items taken in equal proportion from the three original subscales of bond, task and goal.”
An Uncontrolled Clinical Trial of Guided Respiration Mindfulness Therapy (GRMT) in the Treatment of Depression and Anxiety
Lalande, L., King, R., Bambling, M., & Schweitzer, R. (2017) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-017-9360-0 · Cited by 10
“The working alliance inventory—short form (WAI— SF; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989) was used to measure the strength of the therapist-client relationship which is a known predictor of treatment outcomes.”
Method
Relationships Between Adult Attachment Dimensions and Patient-Physician Relationship Quality
McWilliams, L. A. (2018) · Journal of Relationships Research · doi:10.1017/jrr.2018.13 · Cited by 10
“Participants also rated the quality of their relationship with their surgeons using a short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) that was reworded to be appropriate for patients with cancer.”
Method
Development and validation of the therapeutic alliance in physiotherapy questionnaire for patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain
Linares-Fernández, M. T., Touche, R. L., & Pardo-Montero, J. (2020) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2020.09.024 · Cited by 11
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and Acupuncture in Chronic Low Back Pain: Protocol for Two Linked Randomized Controlled Trials
Mackey, S., Gilam, G., Darnall, B. D., Goldin, P. R., Kong, J., Law, C. S. W., Heirich, M. S., Karayannis, N. V., Kao, M. J., Tian, L., et al. (2022) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/37823 · Cited by 13
A pilot randomised controlled trial to assess the feasibility and acceptability of recovery-focused therapy for older adults with bipolar disorder
Tyler, E., Lobban, F. A., Sutton, C., Hadarag, M. B., Johnson, S. L., Depp, C. A., Duncan, D., & Jones, S. H. (2022) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2022.582 · Cited by 10
A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinician behaviors and characteristics related to alliance building with youth clients
Orlowski, E. W., Bender, A. M., & Karver, M. S. (2023) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102273 · Cited by 10
The relationships between adult attachment, theoretical orientation, and therapist-reported alliance quality among licensed psychologists
Fleischman, S., & Shorey, H. S. (2014) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2014.947390 · Cited by 10
“Validity of the WAI-S has been supported through relationship to measures of client outcome, and internal consistency estimates are high, ranging from .90 to .94 (Dunkle & Freidlander, 1996; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
To switch or not to switch: Inviting bilingual clients to switch languages in psychotherapy
Pérez‐Rojas, A. E., Gelso, C. J., & Bhatia, A. (2013) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2013.870124 · Cited by 10
“Using confirmatory factor analysis, Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) found evidence of a general alliance factor plus three second-level factors that correspond to the bond, task, and goal subscales.”
Method
Relationships between racial/ethnic minority status, therapeutic alliance, and treatment expectancies among veterans with PTSD.
Koo, K. H., Tiêt, Q. Q., & Rosen, C. S. (2015) · Psychological Services · doi:10.1037/ser0000029 · Cited by 10
The relevance of professionals’ attachment style, expectations and job attitudes for therapeutic relationships with young people who experience psychosis
Berry, C., & Greenwood, K. (2016) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.01.002 · Cited by 10
“Previous studies have obtained high reliability for the WAI-s with patients (a = .89) and professionals (a = .94) [48].”
MethodInfluential
Effectiveness of enhanced cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT-E) in the treatment of anorexia nervosa: a prospective multidisciplinary study
Danielsen, Y. S., Rekkedal, G. Å., Frostad, S., & Keßler, U. (2016) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-016-1056-6 · Cited by 10
“This measure has both patient and therapist versions, and it has been found to exhibit acceptable validity and interrater reliability [70–72].”
Background
Basic psychological needs satisfaction, working alliance, and early termination in psychotherapy
Keleher, B., Oakman, J. M., Capobianco, K., & Mittelstaedt, W. H. (2017) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2017.1367271 · Cited by 12
“This result is consistent with previous factor-analytic examinations of long- and short-form versions of the WAI, which have found this measure to be primarily evaluating a strong underlying general alliance factor (Busseri & Tyler, 2003; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundResult
Moderators of congruent alliance between therapists and clients: A realistic accuracy model.
Chen, R., Rafaeli, E., Bar‐Kalifa, E., Gilboa‐Schechtman, E., Lutz, W., & Atzil–Slonim, D. (2018) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000285 · Cited by 13
“At the end of each session, the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-SR; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was administered to both clients (client version) and therapists (therapist version).”
Method
Predictive Value of Parent-Professional Alliance for Outcomes of Home-Based Parenting Support
de Greef, M., McLeod, B. D., Scholte, R. H. J., Delsing, M. J. M. H., Pijnenburg, H. M. P. H. M., & van Hattum, M. J. C. (2018) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-018-9467-9 · Cited by 11
Feasibility and acceptability of integrated psychological therapy versus treatment as usual for people with bipolar disorder and co-morbid alcohol use: A single blind randomised controlled trial
Jones, S. H., Riste, L., Robinson, H., Holland, F., Peters, S., Hartwell, R., Berry, K., Fitzsimmons, M., Wilson, I., Hilton, C., et al. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.05.038 · Cited by 10
The association of working alliance, outcome expectation, adherence and self‐efficacy with clinical outcomes for Achilles tendinopathy: A feasibility cohort study (the MAP study)
Mallows, A. J., Jackson, J., Littlewood, C., & Debenham, J. R. (2020) · Musculoskeletal Care · doi:10.1002/msc.1451 · Cited by 11
The effects of therapist feedback on the therapeutic alliance and alcohol use outcomes in the outpatient treatment of alcohol use disorder
Maisto, S., Schlauch, R., Connors, G., Dearing, R., & O'hern, K. (2020) · Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14297 · Cited by 10
“American Psychological Association Washington, DC. Mallinckrodt B, Tekie YT (2016) Item response theory analysis of Working Alliance Inventory, revised response format, and new Brief Alliance Inventory.”
MethodInfluential
The Focal Play Therapy: An Empirical Study on the Parent–Therapist Alliance, Parent–Child Interactions and Parenting Stress in a Clinical Sample of Children and Their Parents
Chirico, I., Andrei, F., Salvatori, P., Malaguti, I., & Trombini, E. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17228379 · Cited by 11
“The WAI-SF is composed by 12 items rated on a seven-point Likert scale.”
MethodInfluential
Working together: An investigation of the impact of working alliance and cohesion on group psychotherapy attendance
Clough, B. A., Spriggens, L. K., Stainer, M. J., & Casey, L. M. (2021) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12364 · Cited by 10
The Relationship between Alliance, Attachment and Outcome in a Child Multi-Modal Treatment Population: Pilot Study.
Guzder, J., Bond, S., Rabiau, M. A., Zelkowitz, P., & Rohar, S. (2011) · PubMed Central · Cited by 10
Behavioral Activation Between Acute Inpatient and Outpatient Psychiatry: Description of a Protocol and a Pilot Feasibility Study
Folke, F., Hursti, T. J., Tungström, S., Söderberg, P., Ekselius, L., & Kanter, J. W. (2014) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2014.03.006 · Cited by 11
Psychotherapy role expectations and experiences – Discrepancy and therapeutic alliance among patients with substance use disorders
Frankl, M., Philips, B., & Wennberg, P. (2014) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12021 · Cited by 10
Therapeutic Alliance in Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Schizophrenia: Association with History of Sexual Assault
Lysaker, P. H., Davis, L. W., Outcalt, S. D., Gelkopf, M., & Roe, D. (2010) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9328-9 · Cited by 10
“Working Alliance Inventory—Short Version—Client and Therapist Forms (WAI-S; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989) are each a 12-item measure based on Bordin’s (1979) transtheoretical conceptualization that views therapeutic alliance as comprised of three components: the therapeutic bond, agreement between…”
Feasibility randomised controlled trial of Recovery-focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Older Adults with bipolar disorder (RfCBT-OA): study protocol
Tyler, E., Lobban, F. A., Sutton, C., Depp, C. A., Johnson, S. L., Laidlaw, K., & Jones, S. H. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010590 · Cited by 10
“The WAI-S measures three dimensions of alliance: bond, goals and tasks.”
Influential
Non-specific mechanisms in orthodox and CAM management of low back pain (MOCAM): theoretical framework and protocol for a prospective cohort study
Bradbury, K. J., Al‐Abbadey, M., Carnes, D., Dimitrov, B. D., Eardley, S., Fawkes, C. A., Foster, J., Greville-Harris, M., Harvey, J. M., Leach, J., et al. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012209 · Cited by 10
Psychotherapy with older adults in primary care medical settings
Haley, W. E. (1999) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4679(199908)55:8 · Cited by 12
Patient Outcomes of Flexible Assertive Community Treatment Compared With Assertive Community Treatment
Nielsen, C. M., Hjorthøj, C. R., Arnfred, B. T., & Nordentoft, M. (2022) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.20220235 · Cited by 9
Privacy protection framework for open data: Constructing and assessing an effective approach
Tang, Y. (2024) · Library & Information Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2024.101312 · Cited by 9
Achieving successful resolution of alliance ruptures: for whom and when?
David-Sela, T. B., Dolev‐Amit, T., Eubanks, C. F., & Zilcha‐Mano, S. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1862432 · Cited by 10
“Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Can alliance-focused supervision help improve emotional involvement and collaboration between client and therapist?
Plantade-Gipch, A., Blanchet, A., & Drouin, M. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling · doi:10.1080/13642537.2021.1881138 · Cited by 6
“This questionnaire was often used in research and has a good validity (Horvath et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2000; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Strengthening the working alliance between social workers and parents living in households with low income
Gyüre, K., Tøge, A. G., & Malmberg-Heimonen, I. E. (2020) · European Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1080/13691457.2020.1832053 · Cited by 9
“WAI is available in several versions, including the full 36-item Working Alliance Inventory Scale (WAI) (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) and a 12-item short version (WAI-S) (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Internalizing symptoms impede adolescents’ ability to transition from in-person to online mental health services during the 2019 coronavirus disease pandemic
Mekori‐Domachevsky, E., Matalon, N., Mayer, Y., Shiffman, N., Lurie, I., Gothelf, D., & Dekel, I. (2021) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x211021293 · Cited by 9
Are depressed patients’ coping strategies associated with psychotherapy treatment outcomes?
Tait, J., Edmeade, L., & Delgadillo, J. (2021) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12368 · Cited by 9
An initial validation of the Clients’ Experience of Therapy Scale (CETS): assessing the quality of psychotherapy process and outcome from clients’ perspectives
Levitt, H. M., Grabowski, L. M., Minami, T., & Morrill, Z. (2023) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2023.2191171 · Cited by 9
“The WAI-SR (Hatcher & Gillaspy, 2006; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a shortened form of the original 36-item WAI and consists of 12 items that assess the components of the therapeutic alliance.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Building a Bridge of Trust: Collaborative Assessment With a Person With Serious Mental Illness
Tiegreen, J. A., Braxton, L. E., Elbogen, E. B., & Bradford, D. W. (2012) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2012.666596 · Cited by 9
“He was administered the PAI and the Working Alliance Inventory–Short Form (WAI–S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ).”
Method
A Measure of the Parent-Team Alliance in Youth Residential Psychiatry: The Revised Short Working Alliance Inventory
Lamers, A., Delsing, M. J. M. H., van Widenfelt, B. M., & Vermeiren, R. R. J. M. (2015) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-015-9306-1 · Cited by 9
“Secondly, based on the strong psychometric foundation of the WAI-S (Busseri and Tyler 2003) and on previous findings regarding the WAV-12 (Stinckens et al. 2009), it was expected that both the internal consistency and concurrent validity of the subscales would be moderate to good.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Core conflictual relationship theme – guided psychotherapy: Initial effectiveness study of a 16‐session manualized approach in a sample of six patients
Jarry, J. L. (2010) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1348/147608310x486093 · Cited by 9
“The Working Alliance Inventory – short form (WAI-short; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item measure of the therapeutic alliance.”

Authors: Tracey, T. J., & Kokotovic, A. M.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID: Tracey, Terence J.
Venue: Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1989-09
Volume: 1
Issue: 3
Pages: 207-210
ISSN: 1040-3590 (ISSN-L)
1939-134X
DOI: 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207
OpenAlex: W2091499037
Cited by: 1,501
References: 15
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 104 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 67 · 2012: 72
FWCI: 4.61
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics
Keywords: Working Alliance Inventory, therapeutic relationship, factor structure, psychotherapy, counseling center clients, therapist ratings

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