Cited by 1,501Psychotherapy Techniques and ApplicationsCounseling Practices and SupervisionCounseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics

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Factor structure of the working alliance inventory

Tracey, Terence J., Kokotovic, Anna M.·1989·Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

DOI 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207

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Abstract

The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) was completed after the 1st psychotherapy session by 84 university counseling center clients and 15 therapists rating their work with 123 clients

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Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size.
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The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook.
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Items 501–600 of 1,011

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Calamaras, M. R., Tully, E. C., Tone, E. B., Price, M., & Anderson, P. L. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.06.006 · Cited by 32
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Alden, L. E., Taylor, C. T., Laposa, M. J., & Mellings, T. M. B. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcop.20.1.7 · Cited by 30
“Working Alliance Inventory Short Form, Client Version (WAI-C) and Therapist Version (WAI-T) (Horvath & Greenberg, 1986; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
The effects of cultural humility on therapeutic alliance and psychotherapy outcomes: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
Orlowski, E. W., Moeyaert, M., Monley, C. M., & Redden, C. L. (2024) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12835 · Cited by 38
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Thayer, S. D., & Burlingame, G. M. (2014) · Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/gdn0000015 · Cited by 29
“In keeping with the procedure adopted by Johnson, et al. (2005), the current study will use all the items from the Bonds subscale and shortened versions of the Task and Goals subscales (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Therapist self-disclosure and the therapeutic alliance in the treatment of eating problems
Simonds, L. M., & Spokes, N. (2017) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2016.1269557 · Cited by 29
“The Working Alliance Inventory-Short version (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-itemmeasure of three alliance components: “agreement on the tasks of therapy,” “agreement on the goals of therapy,” and “development of an affective bond.””
Method
Therapists’ perspective on the therapeutic relationship: Examining a tripartite model
Bhatia, A., & Gelso, C. J. (2017) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2017.1302409 · Cited by 27
“The present study used the Therapistversion of the short form of the WAI, developed by Tracey and Kokotovic (1989).”
Method
Working Alliance and Stages of Change for Employment: The Intermediary Role of Autonomous Motivation, Outcome Expectancy and Vocational Rehabilitation Engagement
Iwanaga, K., Chan, F., Tansey, T. N., Strauser, D. R., Ritter, E., Bishop, M. L., & Brooks, J. (2018) · Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation · doi:10.1007/s10926-018-9787-5 · Cited by 29
Comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder: The usefulness of a sequential treatment approach within a randomised design
Angelakis, S., Weber, N., & Nixon, R. D. V. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102324 · Cited by 30
The role of common factors in residential cognitive and interpersonal therapy for social phobia: A process–outcome study
Hoffart, A., Borge, F., Sexton, H. C., & Clark, D. M. (2008) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300802369343 · Cited by 29
“Helping alliance was measured by five items of the 12-item short form of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ).”
Method
Moderators of Response to Motivational Interviewing for Partner-violent Men
Murphy, C. M., Linehan, E. L., Reyner, J. C., Musser, P. H., & Taft, C. T. (2012) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-012-9460-2 · Cited by 30
“The WAI has high internal consistency and has been shown to predict treatment outcome across a variety of treatment approaches and modalities (Tracey and Kokotovic 1989; Tryon and Kane 1993; Horvath 1994).”
Background
My care manager, my computer therapy and me: The relationship triangle in computerized cognitive behavioural therapy
Cavanagh, K., Belnap, B. H., Rothenberger, S. D., Abebe, K. Z., & Rollman, B. L. (2017) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2017.10.005 · Cited by 27
Die therapeutische Beziehung in internetbasierten Therapieverfahren
Klasen, M., Knaevelsrud, C., & Böttche, M. (2012) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-012-3659-6 · Cited by 29
Internet-delivered cognitive therapy for social anxiety disorder in Hong Kong: A randomized controlled trial
Thew, G. R., Kwok, A. P. L., Lissillour Chan, M. H., Powell, C. L. Y. M., Wild, J., Leung, P. W. L., & Clark, D. M. (2022) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2022.100539 · Cited by 28
“Non-specific therapy factors After treatment week 2, patients and therapists completed the Working Alliance Inventory (Horvath and Greenberg, 1989; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Therapeutic alliance is a factor of change in arts therapies and psychomotor therapy with adults who have mental health problems
Heynen, E., Roest, J., Willemars, G., & van Hooren, S. (2017) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2017.05.006 · Cited by 28
Social Identities of Clients and Therapists During the Mental Health Intake Predict Diagnostic Accuracy
Nakash, O., & Saguy, T. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550615576003 · Cited by 29
“The internal consistency was good for clients and therapists (a ¼ .84, a ¼ .91, respectively; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Assessment of the therapeutic alliance of youth and parents with team members in youth residential psychiatry
Lamers, A., & Vermeiren, R. R. J. M. (2014) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1359104514542304 · Cited by 28
“This is a variant of the translated short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI original (Horvath & Greenberg, 1986); WAI-Short version (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989)).”
Background
Identifying pathways to quitting smoking via telemedicine-delivered care.
Liebmann, E. P., Preacher, K. J., Richter, K. P., Cupertino, A. P., & Catley, D. (2019) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000740 · Cited by 30
“The WAI is a 12-item measure (e.g., My Connect 2 Quit counselor and I agreed about the things I need to do help improve my situation) scored on a 7-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always) (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Decídetexto: Mobile cessation support for Latino smokers. Study protocol for a randomized clinical trial
Cartujano‐Barrera, F., Arana‐Chicas, E., Catley, D., Cox, L. S., DÍAZ, F. J., Ellerbeck, E. F., Graves, K. D., Ogedegbe, C., & Cupertino, A. P. (2020) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2020.106188 · Cited by 27
Demonstrating Attachment‐Based Family Therapy for Transgender and Gender Diverse Youth with Suicidal Thoughts and Behavior: A Case Study
Russon, J., Smithee, L. C., Simpson, S., Levy, S. A., & Diamond, G. S. (2021) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12677 · Cited by 33
The combined predictive effect of patient characteristics and alliance on long‐term dynamic and interpersonal functioning after dynamic psychotherapy
Hersoug, A. G., Høglend, P. A., Gabbard, G. O., & Lorentzen, S. (2012) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1770 · Cited by 29
A study of silent disengagement and distressing emotion in psychotherapy
Stringer, J. G. V. D., Levitt, H. M., Berman, J. S., & Mathews, S. S. (2010) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503301003754515 · Cited by 28
“The WAI-S subscales and total scores have demonstrated high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s a ranging from .83 to .98 (Busseri & Tyler, 2003; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Neurocognitive Correlates of Therapeutic Alliance in Schizophrenia
Davis, L. W., & Lysaker, P. H. (2004) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000131919.60151.a7 · Cited by 28
“Working Alliance Inventory, Short Form, individual items were summed with higher scores reflecting a more positive appraisal of the therapeutic alliance.”
MethodInfluential
Trajectories of Therapeutic Alliance in Couple Versus Individual Therapy: Three-Level Models
Bartle‐Haring, S., Knerr, M., Adkins, K., Delaney, R. O., Gangamma, R., Glebova, T., Grafsky, E. L., McDowell, T. L., & Meyer, K. J. (2012) · Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy · doi:10.1080/0092623x.2011.569635 · Cited by 28
“We assessed therapeutic alliance with the Working Alliance Inventory– Shortened Version (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ) that is based on Bordin's three constructs of alliance: tasks, goals, and bonds (Bordin, 1994 ).”
BackgroundMethod
Delivering exposure and ritual prevention for obsessive–compulsive disorder via videoconference: Clinical considerations and recommendations
Goetter, E. M., Herbert, J. D., Forman, E. M., Yuen, E. K., Gershkovich, M., Glassman, L. H., Rabin, S. J., & Goldstein, S. P. (2013) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2013.01.003 · Cited by 27
Parents with intellectual disabilities seeking professional parenting support: The role of working alliance, stress and informal support
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Solbakken, O. A., Hansen, R. S., Havik, O., & Monsen, J. (2012) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2012.700871 · Cited by 32
“Early working alliance was assessed by the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, 1986 , 1989 ) short version with 12 items rated on a seven-step scale (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ).”
Method
Interaction among Alliance, Psychodynamic–Interpersonal and Cognitive–Behavioural Techniques in the Prediction of Post‐session Change
Owen, J. J., Hilsenroth, M. J., & Rodolfa, E. R. (2012) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1792 · Cited by 28
A randomised controlled trial of recovery focused CBT for individuals with early bipolar disorder
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“Engagement in therapy will be assessed by means of the Work Alliance Inventory (short-form, therapist and client versions; WAI-S) [44].”
Method
Treatment Fidelity during Therapist Initial Training is related to Subsequent Effectiveness of Parent Management Training—Oregon Model
Thijssen, J., Albrecht, G., Muris, P., & de Ruiter, C. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0706-8 · Cited by 29
Improvement in adult anxious and avoidant attachment during cognitive behavioral therapy for panic disorder
Zalaznik, D., Weiss, M., & Huppert, J. D. (2017) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1365183 · Cited by 31
“The WAI-SF (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item self-report scale used to assess the therapeutic relationship between therapist and patient, from the patient’s perspective.”
Method
Moderators and Mediators of Client Satisfaction in Case Management Programs for Clients with Severe Mental Illness
Calsyn, R. J., Morse, G. A., Klinkenberg, W. D., Yonker, R. D., & Trusty, M. L. (2002) · Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1023/a:1020933103412 · Cited by 28
“However, our findings need to be replicated using a more conventional measure of the helping alliance like the Working Alliance Inventory ( Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ).”
Method
Using mediators and moderators to test assumptions underlying culturally sensitive therapies: An exploratory example.
Wong, E. C., Beutler, L. E., & Zane, N. W. S. (2007) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.13.2.169 · Cited by 28
“The Working Alliance Inventory—Short Version (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was used to assess perceptions of the working alliance.”
Method
Counselor and Client Predictors of the Initial Working Alliance:
Wei, M., & Heppner, P. P. (2004) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000004268636 · Cited by 28
“The Working Alliance Inventory–Short Version (WAIS; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure the therapeutic relationship; two parallel forms assess the relationship from either the client’s or the counselor’s perspective.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The effectiveness of critical time intervention for abused women and homeless people leaving Dutch shelters: study protocol of two randomised controlled trials
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“To assess the working alliance between participants and professionals the short version of the 36-item Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) [84-86] (Flemish translation) was used.”
MethodInfluential
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“Therefore, for the present study, five items adapted from the Working Alliance Inventory-Short Version (WAI-S; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989, translated by Bachelor & Salamé, [Inventaire d’alliance de travail, french traduction of the Working Alliance Inventor, personal…”
BackgroundMethod
Video-Delivered Family Therapy for Home Visited Young Mothers With Perinatal Depressive Symptoms: Quasi-Experimental Implementation-Effectiveness Hybrid Trial
Cluxton‐Keller, F., Williams, M., Buteau, J., Donnelly, C. L., Stolte, P., Monroe-Cassel, M., & BRUCE, M. L. (2018) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/11513 · Cited by 27
“Each subscale includes response choices that range from seldom to always, but the numeric order is reversed for some of the items [50,51].”
Influential
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Patient alliance with the program predicts treatment outcomes whereas alliance with the therapist predicts adherence in internet-based therapy for panic disorder
Zalaznik, D., Strauss, A. Y., Halaj, A., Barzilay, S., Fradkin, I., Katz, B. A., Ganor, T., Ebert, D. D., Andersson, G., & Huppert, J. D. (2021) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2021.1882712 · Cited by 29
“Working Alliance Index—Therapist Short Form (WAI-T, therapist perspective; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
A Preliminary Investigation of Metacognitive Therapy and Habit Reversal as a Treatment for Trichotillomania.
Shareh, H. (2018) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465817000546 · Cited by 25
Research on the Hill Cognitive-Experiential Dream Model.
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Early and Later Predictors of Outcome in Brief Therapy: The Role of Real Relationship
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An exploration of the therapeutic alliance within a telephone‐based cognitive behaviour therapy for individuals with experience of psychosis
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How Technology Influences the Therapeutic Process: Evaluation of the Patient-Therapist Relationship in Augmented Reality Exposure Therapy and In Vivo Exposure Therapy
Wrzesien, M., Bretón-López, J. M., Botella, C., Burkhardt, J., Alcañíz, M., Pérez-Ara, M. Á., & del Amo, A. R. (2013) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465813000088 · Cited by 26
“The patients also performed the Behavioural Avoidance Test (BAT; adapted from Öst, 2000) and completed the short version of Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989), after which they received the intensive therapeutic session using one of two treatments.”
Case Manager- and Patient-Rated Alliance as a Predictor of Medication Adherence in First-Episode Psychosis
Montreuil, T. C., Cassidy, C., Rabinovitch, M., Pawliuk, N., Schmitz, N., Joober, R., & MALLA, A. K. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0b013e31825d3763 · Cited by 26
Metacognitive Therapy for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder By Videoconference: A Preliminary Study
Fitt, S., & Rees, C. S. (2012) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1017/bec.2012.21 · Cited by 27
“Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) revised the twelve-item short form (WAI-S-C) to reflect this three-factor structure.”
Background
The Psychometric Properties of the WAI in a Career Counseling Setting: Comparison With a Personal Counseling Sample
Perdrix, S., de Roten, Y., Kolly, S., & Rossier, J. (2010) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072710374583 · Cited by 26
“Globally, our results support the bilevel model of working alliance where the three first-order factors (Task, Goal, and Bond) all contribute to a second-order global working alliance factor (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
MethodResultInfluential
Assessing supervision’s clinical and multicultural impacts: The Supervision Outcome Scale's psychometric properties.
Tsong, Y., & Goodyear, R. K. (2014) · Training and Education in Professional Psychology · doi:10.1037/tep0000049 · Cited by 26
Effects of therapeutic relationship, expectancy, and credibility in breathing therapies for anxiety
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Client Personality, Working Alliance and Outcome
Coleman, D. K. (2006) · Social Work in Mental Health · doi:10.1300/j200v04n04_06 · Cited by 26
“Originally developed by Horvath & Greenberg (1989), this study used a 12-item version developed via factor analysis that showed excellent internal reliability with a total scale alpha of .98 (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
The Relationship Between Counselor Verbal Response Modes and the Working Alliance in Career Counseling
Multon, K. D., Ellis‐Kalton, C. A., Heppner, M. J., & Gysbers, N. C. (2003) · The Career Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2003.tb00606.x · Cited by 26
Structural Equation Modeling in Clinical Psychology Research
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Girls (and boys) just want to have fun: A mixed-methods examination of the role of gender in youth mentoring relationship duration and quality
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“Youth and mentors rated the strength of the mentoring relationship on the Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) 3 months into the relationship.”
Method
Client Perspectives About Religion and Spirituality in Group Counseling
Post, B. C., & Wade, N. G. (2014) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000014524601 · Cited by 25
“The Working Alliance Inventory–Short Form–Bond (WAI-S-B; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was used to measure clients’ perceptions of their bond with co-leaders.”
Method
Change in patients’ interpersonal impacts as a mediator of the alliance-outcome association in treatment for chronic depression.
Constantino, M. J., Laws, H. B., Coyne, A. E., Greenberg, R. P., Klein, D. N., Manber, R., ROTHBAUM, B. O., & Arnow, B. A. (2016) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000149 · Cited by 25
PTSD as a predictor of treatment engagement and recidivism in partner abusive men.
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“The Working Alliance Inventory–Short (WAI-S) is a 12-item scale used to evaluate therapist’s and client’s perceptions of mutually agreed-upon goals and the quality of the therapeutic relationship (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Factors Associated With Response to Adapted Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety and Depression Following Traumatic Brain Injury
Ponsford, J. L., Lee, N., Wong, D. K., McKay, A., Haines, K., Downing, M. G., Alway, Y., Furtado, C., & O'Donnell, M. L. (2019) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000510 · Cited by 25
Potential processes of change in MDMA‐Assisted therapy for social anxiety disorder: Enhanced memory reconsolidation, self‐transcendence, and therapeutic relationships
Luoma, J. B., Shahar, B., Lear, M. K., Pilecki, B. C., & Wagner, A. (2021) · Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental · doi:10.1002/hup.2824 · Cited by 29
“We focus first on the possibility that MDMA may enhance memory reconsolidation in SAD, an idea that has been previously discussed in relation to PTSD (Feduccia & Mithoefer, 2018).”
ResultInfluential
Doing research on the effectiveness of psychotherapy and psychotherapy training: a person-centered/experiential perspective
Elliott, R., & Zucconi, A. (2006) · Strathprints: The University of Strathclyde institutional repository (University of Strathclyde) · Cited by 25
Clients' Expectations About Counseling and Perceptions of the Working Alliance
Tokar, D. M., Hardin, S. I., Adams, E. M., & Brandel, I. W. (1996) · Journal of College Student Psychotherapy · doi:10.1300/j035v11n02_03 · Cited by 25
Sources accounting for alliance and cohesion at three stages in group psychotherapy: Variance component analyses.
Bakali, J. V., Wilberg, T., Hagtvet, K. A., & Lorentzen, S. (2010) · Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/a0019170 · Cited by 25
Reciprocal Empathy and Working Alliance in Terminal Oncological Illness: The Crucial Role of Patients’ Attachment Style
Calvo, V., Palmieri, A., Marinelli, S., Bianco, F., & Kleinbub, J. R. (2014) · Journal of Psychosocial Oncology · doi:10.1080/07347332.2014.936651 · Cited by 25
“The patient–physician alliance was evaluated using the Working Alliance Inventory–Short Form (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Therapist directives: Use and outcomes in China
Duan, C., Hill, C. E., Guangrong, J., Hu, B., Chui, H. T., Hui, K., Liu, J., & Yu, L. (2012) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2012.664292 · Cited by 25
“Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a widely used self-report measure of working alliance.”
Method
Factorial and predictive validity of the expectations about counseling-brief (EAC-B) with clients seeking counseling.
Anderson, T., Patterson, C. L., Mcclintock, A. S., & Song, X. (2013) · Journal of counseling and psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034222 · Cited by 25
“The WAI-SR retains the structure of the original WAI (Horvath, 1981) and subsequent short forms (e.g., Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Patients’ selfobject needs in psychodynamic psychotherapy: How they relate to client attachment, symptoms, and the therapy alliance.
Marmarosh, C. L., & Mann, S. (2014) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036866 · Cited by 30
“The Working Alliance Inventory Short Form (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was used to assess the working alliance between patient and therapist.”
BackgroundMethod
Therapeutic alliances predict session by session drinking behavior in the treatment of alcohol use disorders.
Connors, G. J., Maisto, S. A., Schlauch, R. C., Dearing, R. L., Prince, M. A., & Duerr, M. R. (2016) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000130 · Cited by 25
“Developed by Tracey and Kokotovic (1989), the WAI-S is comparable to the longer, 36-item WAI (Busseri & Tyler, 2003) and has satisfactory reliability and validity (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Testing the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) in a French primary care setting
Guédeney, N., Fermanian, J., Curt, F., & Bifulco, A. T. (2005) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-005-0972-4 · Cited by 25
“Tracey and Kokotovic [39] 84 subjects (63% women) Item scores=36 Confirmatory factor analysis, three tested models (single general factor, three correlated specific factors and hierarchical bi-level model) Hierarchical bi-level model with 1 « general alliance factor » and three specific factors corresponding to theore…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Clients’ secret keeping and the working alliance in adult outpatient therapy.
Kelly, A. E., & Yuan, K. (2009) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0016084 · Cited by 25
White Racial Identity Attitudes as a Predictor of Client Perceptions of Cross‐Cultural Working Alliances
Burkard, A. W., Juarez‐Huffaker, M., & Ajmere, K. (2003) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2003.tb00352.x · Cited by 25
Therapist Variables: Predictors of Process in the Treatment of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems
Wolff, M. C., & Hayes, J. A. (2009) · Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07347320802586791 · Cited by 24
“The 12-item short form of the WAI has been found to have similar psychometric properties to the original form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
A randomised controlled trial of time limited CBT informed psychological therapy for anxiety in bipolar disorder
Jones, S. H., McGrath, E., Hampshire, K., Owen, R., Riste, L., Roberts, C., Davies, L. M., & Mayes, D. (2013) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-13-54 · Cited by 24
“Measures to assess therapeutic alliance and adherence to treatment protocol Engagement in therapy will be assessed by means of the Work Alliance Inventory (short-form, therapist and client versions: WAI-S) [34].”
Method
Associations between the peer support relationship, service satisfaction and recovery-oriented outcomes: a correlational study
Thomas, E. C., & Salzer, M. S. (2017) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2017.1417554 · Cited by 28
Relationships Between the Therapeutic Alliance and Reactions to Artistic Experience With Art Materials in an Art Therapy Simulation
Gazit, I., Snir, S., Regev, D., & Or, M. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.560957 · Cited by 25
“Tools Working Alliance Inventory The therapeutic alliance was measured using the short client and the therapist versions of the WAI (Horvath and Greenberg, 1989; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Perceptions of the Ways of Mattering by People With Mental Illness
Corbière, M., & Amundson, N. E. (2007) · The Career Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2007.tb00026.x · Cited by 24
Therapists’ and clients’ perception of each other and working alliance in the behavioral treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia
Ramnerö, J., & Öst, L. (2007) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300600650852 · Cited by 24
“This scale was developed, through confirmatory factor analysis, as an easily administered 12-item (1 7) scale (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Spanish Adaptation of the Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI-S)
Andrade‐González, N., & Fernández-Liria, A. (2015) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-015-9365-3 · Cited by 24
“What should we talk about?” The association between the information exchanged during the mental health intake and the quality of the working alliance.
Nakash, O., Nagar, M., & Kanat‐Maymon, Y. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000074 · Cited by 25
“The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI), short client and therapist versions (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), was administered.”
BackgroundMethod
A Hong Kong validation of working alliance inventory – short form – client
Hsu, S., Zhou, D.-H. R., & Yu, C. K.-C. (2016) · Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/21507686.2016.1193036 · Cited by 24
“Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) proposed a short-form scale (WAI-S) with 12 items taken in equal proportion from the three original subscales.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Mediators of Change in a Parent Training Program for Early ADHD Difficulties: The Role of Parental Strategies, Parental Self-Efficacy, and Therapeutic Alliance
Rimestad, M. L., O’Toole, M. S., & Hougaard, E. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054717733043 · Cited by 23
“Working Alliance Inventory—Short form—Patient version (WAI-SF-Pt).”
Method
Tele-delivered mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A mixed-methods feasibility study
Farver-Vestergaard, I., O’Connor, M., Smith, N. C., Løkke, A., Bendstrup, E. M., & Zachariae, R. H. (2018) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x18780563 · Cited by 25
Web-Based Support for Data-Based Decision Making: Effect of Intervention Implementation on Infant–Toddler Communication
Buzhardt, J. F., Greenwood, C. R., Walker, D., Jia, F., Schnitz, A. G., Higgins, S. K., Montagna, D., & Muehe, C. (2018) · Journal of Early Intervention · doi:10.1177/1053815118788059 · Cited by 24
“Because there is evidence that the effects of early intervention can be moderated by the quality of the parent–educator relationship (Burchinal et al., 2000), we also measured HV and parent perceptions of their working relationship using the WAI-S (Horvath, 1994; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy-trauma for depressed women with childhood abuse histories.
Duberstein, P. R., Ward, E. A., Chaudron, L. H., He, H., Toth, S. L., Wang, W., Orden, K. A. V., Gamble, S. A., & Talbot, N. L. (2018) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000335 · Cited by 24
“Following the third therapy session, participants were mailed the 12-item ( .58) Working Alliance Inventory-short form (Busseri & Tyler, 2003; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
A Comparative Effectiveness Trial to Reduce Burnout and Improve Quality of Care
Salyers, M. P., Garabrant, J. M., Luther, L., Henry, N. H., Fukui, S., Shimp, D., Wu, W., Gearhart, T., Morse, G. A., York, M. M., et al. (2018) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-018-0908-4 · Cited by 26
Assessing the Strength and Integrity of an Intervention
Brandt, P. A., Kirsch, S. E. D., Lewis, F. M., & Casey, S. M. (2004) · Oncology nursing forum · doi:10.1188/04.onf.833-837 · Cited by 24
“The short version of 12 items was used in this study because it has similar psychometric properties to the 36-item form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
The relationship between clients’ cognitive functioning and the therapeutic working alliance in post-acute brain injury rehabilitation
Schönberger, M., Humle, F., & Teasdale, T. W. (2007) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699050701499433 · Cited by 24
“As a measure of WA, the client and therapist short form of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI [21]) was administered as part of a process questionnaire (see [5]).”
BackgroundMethod
The interactive role of working alliance and counselor-client interpersonal behaviors in adolescent substance abuse treatment
Auerbach, S. M., May, J. C., Stevens, M. W., & Kiesler, D. J. (2008) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 24
A Humanistic Framework Using Nonlinear Analysis to Evaluate the Working Alliance and Coping for Adolescents in Crisis
Balkin, R. S., & Schmit, E. L. (2018) · The Journal of Humanistic Counseling · doi:10.1002/johc.12063 · Cited by 23
The Impact of Interpersonal Style on Ruptures and Repairs in the Therapeutic Alliance Between Offenders and Therapists in Sex Offender Treatment
Watson, R., Thomas, S. D. M., & Daffern, M. (2015) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/1079063215617514 · Cited by 23
“Community participants were given the WAI-SF and IMI-C, with return paid and addressed envelopes, to complete outside the treatment program time.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
A pragmatic randomized controlled trial of group transdiagnostic cognitive-behaviour therapy for anxiety disorders in primary care: study protocol
Roberge, P., Provencher, M. D., Gosselin, P., Vasiliadis, H., Gaboury, I., Benoît, A., Antony, M. M., Chaillet, N., Houle, J., Hudon, C., et al. (2018) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1898-1 · Cited by 30
Is adult attachment associated with engagement with services? A systematic literature review
McGonagle, G., Bucci, S., Varese, F., Raphael, J., & Berry, K. (2019) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2019.1608922 · Cited by 23
“Four studies utilised the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), ‘Informant’ and ‘Patient’ version.”
Method
The alliance–outcome association in the treatment of adolescent depression.
Cirasola, A., Midgley, N., Fonagy, P., & Martin, P. (2021) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/pst0000366 · Cited by 22
Assessing Home Visit Quality Dosage, Content, and Relationships
Paulsell, D., Boller, K., Hallgren, K., & Esposito, A. M. (2010) · Zero to three · Cited by 23
Patients’ sense of relationship with breast cancer surgeons: The relative importance of surgeon and patient variability and the influence of patients’ attachment style
Pegman, S., Beesley, H., Holcombe, C., Mendick, N., & Salmon, P. (2010) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2010.04.023 · Cited by 23
“To expedite patients’ participation in the busy clinic we used a short form [17] with 12 items (4 per subscale).”
Method
Working alliance in individual and group cognitive therapy for social anxiety disorder
Mörtberg, E. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.07.004 · Cited by 23
Supervisory Working Alliance: A Model Providing Direction for College Counseling Supervision
Wood, C. (2005) · Journal of College Counseling · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2005.tb00079.x · Cited by 23
Stages of change and the working alliance in psychotherapy
Emmerling, M. E., & Whelton, W. J. (2009) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300902933170 · Cited by 23
“The WAI-S (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ) is a 12-item self-report measure.”
Motivational interviewing and the decisional balance procedure for cessation induction in smokers not intending to quit
Krigel, S., Grobe, J. E., Goggin, K., Harris, K. J., Moreno, J. L., & Catley, D. (2016) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.08.036 · Cited by 23
When is it Effective to Focus on the Alliance? Analysis of a Within-Client Moderator
Zilcha‐Mano, S., Lipsitz‐Odess, I., & Errázuriz, P. (2017) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-017-9867-4 · Cited by 23
“The clients’ perception of the quality of the working alliance was assessed using the 12-item client-rated version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989).”
Oxytocin as a Neurobiological Marker of Ruptures in the Working Alliance
Zilcha‐Mano, S., Porat, Y., Dolev, T., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2018) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000487190 · Cited by 23
Therapeutic Alliance Between Physical Therapists and Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis Consulting Via Telephone: A Longitudinal Study
Lawford, B. J., Bennell, K. L., Campbell, P. K., Kasza, J., & Hinman, R. S. (2019) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/acr.23890 · Cited by 26
“Overall scores range 12–84 (with higher scores indicating a stronger therapeutic alliance) (28,29).”
BackgroundMethod
Internet-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy via Videoconference for Patients With Bulimia Nervosa and Binge-Eating Disorder: Pilot Prospective Single-Arm Feasibility Trial
Hamatani, S., Numata, N., Matsumoto, K., Sutoh, C., Ibuki, H., Oshiro, K., Tanaka, M., Setsu, R., Kawasaki, Y., Hirano, Y., et al. (2019) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/15738 · Cited by 23
“The strength of the therapeutic alliance was assessed using the WAI-SF [33].”
Method

Authors: Tracey, T. J., & Kokotovic, A. M.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID: Tracey, Terence J.
Venue: Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1989-09
Volume: 1
Issue: 3
Pages: 207-210
ISSN: 1040-3590 (ISSN-L)
1939-134X
DOI: 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207
OpenAlex: W2091499037
Cited by: 1,501
References: 15
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 104 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 67 · 2012: 72
FWCI: 4.61
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics
Keywords: Working Alliance Inventory, therapeutic relationship, factor structure, psychotherapy, counseling center clients, therapist ratings

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