Cited by 1,501Psychotherapy Techniques and ApplicationsCounseling Practices and SupervisionCounseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 15 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Factor structure of the working alliance inventory

Tracey, Terence J., Kokotovic, Anna M.·1989·Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

DOI 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) was completed after the 1st psychotherapy session by 84 university counseling center clients and 15 therapists rating their work with 123 clients

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207

Cites

15 of 15 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures.
Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588 · Cited by 20,015
A Reliability Coefficient for Maximum Likelihood Factor Analysis
Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02291170 · Cited by 7,330
The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance.
Bordin, E. S. (1979) · Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice · doi:10.1037/h0085885 · Cited by 5,238
Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size.
Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & McDonald, R. P. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.391 · Cited by 3,953
Development and validation of the working alliance inventory
Horvath, A. O., & Greenberg, L. S. (1989) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.36.2.223 · Cited by 3,520
The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook.
Greenberg, L. S., & Pinsof, W. M. (1986) · Cited by 1,386
The development of the Working Alliance Inventory.
Horvath, A. O., & Greenberg, L. S. (1986) · Cited by 529
The Relationship in Counseling and Psychotherapy
Gelso, C. J., & Carter, J. A. (1985) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000085132001 · Cited by 515
Two Helping Alliance Methods for Predicting Outcomes of Psychotherapy
Luborsky, L. B., Crits-Christoph, P. F., Alexander, L. B., Margolis, M., & COHEN, M. (1983) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-198308000-00005 · Cited by 297
Brief Psychotherapy of Bereavement Reactions
Horowitz, M. J. (1984) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790160024002 · Cited by 208

Show all 15 references

Sorted by citations

Items 201–300 of 1,011

Validating a Mentoring Relationship Quality Scale: Does Match Strength Predict Match Length?
Rhodes, J. E., Schwartz, S. E. O., Willis, M. M., & Wu, M. B. (2017) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x14531604 · Cited by 79
“Likewise, using a short version of the therapeutic Working Alliance Inventory (S-WAI; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) to measure voluntary mentoring relationships, Larose, Chaloux, Monaghan, and Tarabulsy (2010) found that youth showed greater improvement in a number of academic and schoolrelated outcome…”
Method
Change mechanisms in psychotherapy: Multiperspective assessment and relation to outcome
Mander, J. V., Wittorf, A., Schlarb, A., Hautzinger, M., Zipfel, S., & Sammet, I. (2013) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2012.744111 · Cited by 79
“The studies all revealed different factor structures (e.g., Andrusyna, Tang, DeRubeis, & Luborsky, 2001; Hatcher & Barrends, 1996; Hatcher & Gillaspy, 2006; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Good grief and not‐so‐good grief: Countertransference in bereavement therapy
Hayes, J. A., Yeh, Y.-J., & Eisenberg, A. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20353 · Cited by 80
Do the components of manualized family‐based treatment for anorexia nervosa predict weight gain?
Ellison, R., Rhodes, P., Madden, S., Miskovic‐Wheatley, J., Wallis, A., Baillie, A., Kohn, M. R., & Touyz, S. W. (2012) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22000 · Cited by 79
Effect of Internet-Based vs Face-to-Face Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Adults With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Lundström, L., Flygare, O., Andersson, E., Enander, J., Bottai, M., Ivanov, V. Z., Boberg, J., Pascal, D., Mataix-Cols, D., & Rück, C. (2022) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.1967 · Cited by 78
Therapist qualities preferred by sexual-minority individuals.
Burckell, L. A., & Goldfried, M. R. (2006) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.43.1.32 · Cited by 78
A randomized controlled trial of telephone-delivered cognitive–behavioral therapy for late-life anxiety disorders
Brenes, G. A., Miller, M. E., Williamson, J. D., McCall, W. V., Knudson, M., & Stanley, M. A. (2012) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e31822ccd3e · Cited by 77
Efficacy and Feasibility of a Therapist-Guided Internet-Based Intervention for Older Persons with Childhood Traumatization: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Knaevelsrud, C., Böttche, M., Pietrzak, R. H., Freyberger, H. J., & Kuwert, P. (2017) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2017.02.024 · Cited by 75
When adolescents stop psychological therapy: Rupture–repair in the therapeutic alliance and association with therapy ending.
O’Keeffe, S., Martin, P., & Midgley, N. (2020) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/pst0000279 · Cited by 78
Disclosure to therapists: What is and is not discussed in psychotherapy
Farber, B. A., & Hall, D. A. (2002) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.1148 · Cited by 75
Integrative cognitive therapy for depression: A randomized pilot comparison.
Constantino, M. J., Marnell, M. E., Haile, A. J., Kanther-Sista, S., Wolman, K., Zappert, L. N., & Arnow, B. A. (2008) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.45.2.122 · Cited by 78
The role of therapeutic alliance in substance use disorder treatment for young adults
Urbanoski, K. A., Kelly, J. F., Hoeppner, B. B., & Slaymaker, V. J. (2012) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2011.12.013 · Cited by 77
“The WAI-S has shown high internal consistency and construct validity in psychotherapy samples (Busseri & Tyler, 2003; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
Early development of mechanisms of change as a predictor of subsequent change and treatment outcome: The case of working alliance.
Zilcha‐Mano, S., & Errázuriz, P. (2017) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000192 · Cited by 81
Predicting dropout in adolescents receiving therapy for depression
O’Keeffe, S., Martin, P., Goodyer, I. M., Wilkinson, P. O., Impact Consortium, & Midgley, N. (2017) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1393576 · Cited by 77
“The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) has been demonstrated to have construct validity (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) and internal consistency (Cronbach’s α= 0.93; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989).”
Influential
The therapeutic alliance in exposure therapy for anxiety-related disorders: A critical review
Buchholz, J. L., & Abramowitz, J. S. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102194 · Cited by 77
Client and therapist views of contextual factors related to termination from psychotherapy: A comparison between unilateral and mutual terminators
Westmacott, R. P., Hunsley, J. D., Best, M., Rumstein-McKean, O., & Schindler, D. (2010) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503301003645796 · Cited by 76
“Working Alliance Inventory (Short Form; WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
Convergence in patient–therapist therapeutic alliance ratings and its relation to outcome in chronic depression treatment
Laws, H. B., Constantino, M. J., Sayer, A. G., Klein, D. N., Kocsis, J. H., Manber, R., Markowitz, J. C., ROTHBAUM, B. O., Steidtmann, D. K., Thase, M. E., et al. (2016) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2015.1114687 · Cited by 77
“A 12-item short form, adapted by Tracey and Kokotovic (1989), provides an acceptable and valid abbreviated version of the longer measure.”
Method
Therapist immediacy in brief psychotherapy: Case study II.
Hill, C. E., Sim, W., Spangler, P., Stahl, J., Sullivan, C., & Teyber, E. (2008) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0013306 · Cited by 86
“Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) reported high internal consistency of the WAI-S (alpha coefficients ranging from .83 to .98).”
BackgroundMethod
Vocal synchrony in psychotherapy.
Reich, C. M., Berman, J. S., Dale, R., & Levitt, H. M. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.5.481 · Cited by 75
“The 12-item Client Working Alliance Inventory, Short Form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was used to measure perceptions of the quality of the relationship between therapist and client.”
Predicting premature termination of hospitalised treatment for anorexia nervosa: The roles of therapeutic alliance, motivation, and behaviour change
Sly, R., Morgan, J. F., Mountford, V. A., & Lacey, J. H. (2013) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.01.007 · Cited by 73
“TheWAI-S (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-itemmeasure with a seven-point coding scale that was developed from the longer 36-item Working Alliance Inventory (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989).”
Method
Executive coaching
Baron, L., Morin, L., & Morin, D. (2011) · Journal of Management Development · doi:10.1108/02621711111164330 · Cited by 75
Reflective functioning as predictor of working alliance and outcome in the treatment of depression.
Ekeblad, A., Falkenström, F., & Holmqvist, R. (2015) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000055 · Cited by 74
“S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) for therapistrated, and revised short form (WAI-SR; Hatcher & Gillaspy, 2006) for patient-rated working alliance were used.”
MethodResult
Working Alliance, Treatment Satisfaction, and Patterns of Posttreatment Use Among Adolescent Substance Users.
Tetzlaff, B. T., Kahn, J. H., Godley, S. H., Godley, M. D., Diamond, G. S., & Funk, R. R. (2005) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.19.2.199 · Cited by 73
Treating the untreatable: A single case study of a psychopathic inpatient treated with Schema Therapy.
Chakhssi, F., Kersten, T., de Ruiter, C., & Bernstein, D. P. (2014) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0035773 · Cited by 73
Client attachment and the working alliance
Satterfield, W. A., & Lydodon, W. J. (1998) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515079808254071 · Cited by 71
Examining the generalizability of problem-solving appraisal in Black South Africans.
Heppner, P. P., Pretorius, T. B., Wei, M., Lee, D., & Wang, Y. (2002) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.49.4.484 · Cited by 74
“The bilevel model was similar to the model used by Tracey and his colleagues (Tracey et al., 1988; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ) and included 3 first-order factors that are 3 specific factors (e.g., AAS, PSC, and PC) and the second-order factor that is 1 general factor (e.g., PSI).”
MethodInfluential
A randomized controlled trial examining the efficacy of an internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy program for adolescents with anxiety disorders
Stjerneklar, S., Hougaard, E., McLellan, L. F., & Thastum, M. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222485 · Cited by 71
“The following measures were administered but not reported here: The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire [74, 75]; The Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form [76].”
Method
The From Survivor to Thriver program: RCT of an online therapist-facilitated program for rape-related PTSD
Littleton, H., Grills, A. E., Kline, K. D., Schoemann, A. M., & Dodd, J. C. (2016) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.07.010 · Cited by 71
Two short forms of the Agnew Relationship Measure: The ARM-5 and ARM-12
Cahill, J., Stiles, W. B., Barkham, M., Hardy, G. E., Stone, G. M., Agnew-Davies, R., & Unsworth, G. (2011) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2011.643253 · Cited by 75
“…similar pragmatic concerns motivated the development of the short forms of other alliance measures, including the WAI (Hatcher & Gillaspy, 2006; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), the California Psychotherapy Alliance Scales (Gaston & Marmar, 1991), and the Counselor Rating Form (Corrigan & Schmidt,…”
Background
Alliance, Negotiation, and Rupture Resolution
Safran, J. D., Muran, J. C., & Proskurov, B. (2008) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-444-5_9 · Cited by 76
“Subsequent studies [56] suggested that the WAI appears to be measuring one general alliance factor, as well as the three specific alliance factors of task, goal, and bond.”
BackgroundMethod
Subjective outcome of brain injury rehabilitation in relation to the therapeutic working alliance, client compliance and awareness
Schönberger, M., Humle, F., & Teasdale, T. W. (2006) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699050601049395 · Cited by 70
“All 12 items together assess one general, second-order alliance dimension [25].”
BackgroundMethod
Individual versus group female-specific cognitive behavior therapy for alcohol use disorder
Epstein, E. E., McCrady, B. S., Hallgren, K. A., Gaba, A., Cook, S., Jensen, N., Hildebrandt, T., Holzhauer, C. G., & Litt, M. D. (2018) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2018.02.003 · Cited by 70
Levels and Patterns of the Therapeutic Alliance in Brief Psychotherapy
Stevens, C., Muran, J. C., Safran, J. D., Gorman, B. S., & Winston, A. (2007) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2007.61.2.109 · Cited by 81
The Relationship Between Supervisee Stress, Coping Resources, the Working Alliance, and the Supervisory Working Alliance
Gnilka, P. B., Chang, C. Y., & Dew, B. J. (2012) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1111/j.1556-6676.2012.00009.x · Cited by 69
Psychometric evaluation of the Working Alliance Inventory—Therapist version: Current and new short forms
Hatcher, R. L., Lindqvist, K., & Falkenström, F. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2019.1677964 · Cited by 72
“Standard estimation methods such as ML-CFA are unable to estimate models that allow constrained parameters to deviate from zero, and often yield sub-optimal model fit (e.g., Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989; see Asparouhov & Muthén, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Remote “Hovering” With Individuals With Psychotic Disorders and Substance Use: Feasibility, Engagement, and Therapeutic Alliance With a Text-Messaging Mobile Interventionist
Ben‐Zeev, D., Kaiser, S. M., & Krzos, I. M. (2014) · Journal of Dual Diagnosis · doi:10.1080/15504263.2014.962336 · Cited by 70
“Participants also completed two adapted versions of the Working Alliance Inventory (Tracey & Kokotowitz, 1989), a self-rated measure of the quality of the therapeutic relationship with one’s clinician.”
Method
Understanding the psychological processes of the racial match effect in Asian Americans.
Meyer, O. L., Zane, N. W. S., & Cho, Y. I. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023605 · Cited by 81
“A factor analysis of the WAI-SF indicated a similar factor structure compared with the original WAI, and the items primarily measure a general alliance factor, encompassing task, bond, and goal, indicating that the WAI-SF was valid (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
Reciprocal influence model of working alliance and therapeutic outcome over individual therapy course.
Xu, H., & Tracey, T. J. G. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000089 · Cited by 68
Self-citation
Role of treatment alliance in the clinical management of bipolar disorder: Stronger alliances prospectively predict fewer manic symptoms
Strauss, J. L., & Johnson, S. L. (2006) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.01.007 · Cited by 68
“As previous studies have demonstrated high interscale correlations for the WAI (Hatcher et al., 1995; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989), total WAI scores were used in this study.”
Method
Patient and Therapist Perspectives on Alliance Development: Therapists' Practice Experiences as Predictors
Nissen‐Lie, H. A., Havik, O. E., Høglend, P. A., Rønnestad, M. H., & Monsen, J. T. (2014) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1891 · Cited by 68
“To test the factor structure of the WAI, Tracey and Koskotovic (1989), employing confirmatory factor analyses, showed that the best model fit of WAI scores was achieved for a hierarchical two-level factor structure with a higher-order global alliance factor and three first-order factors…”
MethodInfluential
The insecure psychotherapy base: Using client and therapist attachment styles to understand the early alliance.
Marmarosh, C. L., Kivlighan, D. M., Bieri, K., Schutt, J. M. L., Barone, C., & Choi, J. (2014) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0031989 · Cited by 76
Patient-Provider Therapeutic Alliance Contributes to Patient Activation in Community Mental Health Clinics
Allen, M., Cook, B. L., Carson, N. J., Interian, A., Roche, M. J. L., & Alegria, M. M. (2015) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-015-0655-8 · Cited by 67
“Therapeutic alliance, was examined by the 12 item WAI-Short form, which is widely used to assess therapeutic alliance (Tracey and Kokotovic 1989).”
Coaches and Clients in Action: A Sequential Analysis of Interpersonal Coach and Client Behavior
Ianiro-Dahm, P. M., Lehmann‐Willenbrock, N., & Kauffeld, S. (2014) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-014-9374-5 · Cited by 78
“To measure working alliance, we used a German short version of the widely used Working Alliance Inventory (WAI, Horvath and Greenberg 1989).”
Method
The impact of early empathy on alliance building, emotional processing, and outcome during experiential treatment of depression
Malin, A. J., & Pos, A. E. (2014) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2014.901572 · Cited by 84
“There is a short-form (12-item) version with comparable psychometric properties (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Relation of the real relationship and the working alliance to the outcome of brief psychotherapy.
Coco, G. L., Gullo, S., Prestano, C., & Gelso, C. J. (2011) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0022426 · Cited by 67
“The Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI) form is the 12-item short version of the client and therapist forms of the WAI (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Vancouver At Home: pragmatic randomized trials investigating Housing First for homeless and mentally ill adults
Somers, J. M., Patterson, M., Moniruzzaman, A., Currie, L. B., Rezansoff, S. N., Palepu, A., & Fryer, K. (2013) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-14-365 · Cited by 67
“Timeline: BL, baseline; 3, 3-month visit; 6, 6-month visit; 9, 9-month visit; 12, 12-month visit; 15, 15-month visit; 18, 18-month visit; 21, 21-month visit; 24, 24-month visit. satisfaction scale (C-SSS) [42,43]; or at other intervals: cognitive impairment (CI) (Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, Trail Making Test, Digit…”
Background
Short form of the revised vanderbilt therapeutic alliance scale: Development, reliability, and validity
Shelef, K., & Diamond, G. M. (2008) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300701810801 · Cited by 66
“Such findings are consistent with findings from other studies developing short versions of existing, psychometrically sound alliance measures, such as the WAI (Busseri & Tyler, 2003; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Result
Feasibility of a ward‐based psychological intervention to improve staff and patient relationships in psychiatric rehabilitation settings
Berry, K., Haddock, G., Kellett, S., Roberts, C., Drake, R., & Barrowclough, C. (2015) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12082 · Cited by 66
The Influence of Demand Characteristics and Social Desirability on Clients’ Ratings of the Therapeutic Alliance
Reese, R. J., Gillaspy, J. A., Owen, J. J., Flora, K., Cunningham, L. C., Archie, D., & Marsden, T. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21946 · Cited by 67
“SRS scores also exhibit moderate evidence of concurrent validity with longer alliance measures; r = .48 with the Helping Alliance Questionnaire-II (HAQ-II; Luborsky et al., 1996) and r = .58 with the WAI-S (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
Therapeutic Alliance in Internet‐Delivered Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Depression or Generalized Anxiety
Hadjistavropoulos, H. D., Pugh, N. E., Hesser, H., & Andersson, G. (2017) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2014 · Cited by 61
“(2016) studies utilized the Working Alliance Inventory Short form (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) as compared to the TAQ.”
Method
Working alliance and competence as predictors of outcome in cognitive behavioral therapy for social anxiety and panic disorder in adults
Haug, T., Nordgreen, T., Öst, L.-G., Tangen, T., Kvale, G., Hovland, O. J., Heiervang, E. R., & Havik, O. E. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.12.004 · Cited by 64
Effect of a motivation enhancement intervention on veterans’ engagement in PTSD treatment.
Murphy, R. T., Thompson, K. E., Murray, M. S., Rainey, Q., & Uddo, M. M. (2009) · Psychological Services · doi:10.1037/a0017577 · Cited by 64
Conflict begets conflict: Executive control, mental state vacillations, and the therapeutic alliance in treatment of borderline personality disorder
Levy, K. N., Beeney, J. E., Wasserman, R. H., & Clarkin, J. F. (2010) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503301003636696 · Cited by 64
“To further investigate whether facets of the therapeutic alliance were more impacted by difficulties with executive attention, we examined the relationship of ANT indices with the three factors of the WAI: Agreement on Goals, Agreement on Tasks, and Therapeutic Bond (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ).”
Method
Pretreatment patient characteristics related to the level and development of working alliance in long-term psychotherapy
Hersoug, A. G., H⊘glend, P., Havik, O. E., von der Lippe, A., & Monsen, J. T. (2009) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300802657374 · Cited by 74
“The WAI measures three aspects of the collaborative, purposive work in therapy: Bond, Task, and Goal; each subscale contains four items (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ).”
To enforce or engage: The relationship between coercion, treatment motivation and therapeutic alliance within community-based drug and alcohol clients
Wolfe, S., KAY‐LAMBKIN, F. J., Bowman, J., & Childs, S. J. (2013) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.01.017 · Cited by 65
Working with hoarding vs. non-hoarding clients: A survey of professionals' attitudes and experiences
Tolin, D. F., Frost, R. O., & Steketee, G. S. (2012) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2011.11.004 · Cited by 64
Therapist rotation: a novel approach for implementation of trauma-focused treatment in post-traumatic stress disorder
van Minnen, A., Hendriks, L., de Kleine, R. A., Hendriks, G., Verhagen, M., & de Jongh, A. (2018) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2018.1492836 · Cited by 68
“…following the final treatment session, all patients filled in the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI), short version (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), a commonly used and reliable scale to measure the quality of the therapeutic relationship operationalized as the working…”
Method
An exploratory study of the relationship between changes in emotion and cognitive processes and treatment outcome in borderline personality disorder
McMain, S., Links, P. S., Guimond, T. H., Wnuk, S., Eynan, R., Bergmans, Y., & Warwar, S. H. (2013) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2013.838653 · Cited by 65
“The Working Alliance Inventory, short form, client version (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a self-report instrument that measures clients’ perception of the strength of the relational bond and their perception of degree of agreement between therapist and client on the therapy goals and tasks.”
Metacognition as a predictor of therapeutic alliance over 26weeks of psychotherapy in schizophrenia
Davis, L. W., Eicher, A. C., & Lysaker, P. H. (2011) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.02.026 · Cited by 63
Where is the relationship in research on the alliance? Two methods for analyzing dyadic data.
Kivlighan, D. M. (2007) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.4.423 · Cited by 65
Understanding the therapeutic alliance in stroke rehabilitation
Bishop, M., Kayes, N. M., & McPherson, K. M. (2019) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2019.1651909 · Cited by 72
Relationship of power and involvement to working alliance: A multiple-case sequential analysis of brief therapy.
Reandeau, S. G., & Wampold, B. E. (1991) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.38.2.107 · Cited by 61
Between‐Session Practice and Therapeutic Alliance as Predictors of Mindfulness After Mindfulness‐Based Relapse Prevention
Bowen, S., & Kurz, A. S. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20855 · Cited by 61
“Therapeutic alliance (also called working alliance) has been described as (a) agreement between client and therapist on goals, (b) agreement on tasks used to achieve those goals, and (c) the interpersonal bond between the client and therapist (Bordin, 1979; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Measuring Alliance Toward Embodied Virtual Therapists in the Era of Automated Treatments With the Virtual Therapist Alliance Scale (VTAS): Development and Psychometric Evaluation
Miloff, A., Carlbring, P., Hamilton, W., Andersson, G., Reuterskiöld, L., & Lindner, P. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/16660 · Cited by 60
“The WAI-VAR [31], however, was developed to address comfort and trust with the virtual environment itself, replacing “my therapist” with “virtual environment” for all items of the Spanish version of the WAI-S.”
BackgroundInfluential
Engagement in psychotherapy: Factors contributing to the facilitation, demise, and restoration of the therapeutic alliance.
Constantino, M. J., Castonguay, L. G., Zack, S., & DeGeorge, J. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12139-001 · Cited by 63
Does the working alliance mediate the effect of routine outcome monitoring (ROM) and alliance feedback on psychotherapy outcomes? A secondary analysis from a randomized clinical trial.
Brattland, H., Koksvik, J. M., Burkeland, O., Klöckner, C. A., Lara‐Cabrera, M. L., Miller, S. D., Wampold, B. E., Ryum, T., & Iversen, V. C. (2019) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000320 · Cited by 80
Development and evaluation of a scale assessing therapist fidelity to guidelines for delivering therapist-assisted Internet-delivered cognitive behaviour therapy
Hadjistavropoulos, H. D., Schneider, L. H., Klassen, K., Dear, B. F., & Titov, N. (2018) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2018.1457079 · Cited by 61
“The Working Alliance Inventory-Short Revised (WAI-SR; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) assessed post-treatment alliance (α = .90).”
Method
Triple Stigma of Forensic Psychiatric Patients: Mental Illness, Race, and Criminal History
West, M., Yanos, P., & Mulay, A. (2014) · International Journal of Forensic Mental Health · doi:10.1080/14999013.2014.885471 · Cited by 71
Client attachment orientations, working alliances, and responses to therapy: A psychology training clinic study
Sauer, E. M., Anderson, M. Z., Gormley, B., Richmond, C. J., & Preacco, L. (2010) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2010.518635 · Cited by 61
“Although the WAI-C yields three subscales (Bonds, Goals, and Tasks), factor analysis suggests that total score is the most salient variable (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Counselor technical activity in cases with improving working alliances and continuing-poor working alliances.
Kivlighan, D. M., & Schmitz, P. J. (1992) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.39.1.32 · Cited by 61
Predictors in Internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy and behavioral stress management for severe health anxiety
Hedman, E., Andersson, E., Lekander, M., & Ljótsson, B. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.11.009 · Cited by 56
Cognitive Behavioral Treatment for Recurrent Binge Eating in Adolescent Girls: A Pilot Trial
DeBar, L. L., Wilson, G. T., Yarborough, B. J., Burns, B., Oyler, B., Hildebrandt, T., Clarke, G. N., Dickerson, J., & Striegel, R. H. (2013) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2012.04.001 · Cited by 58
Effectiveness of peer-delivered Center for Independent Living supports for individuals with psychiatric disabilities: A randomized, controlled trial.
Salzer, M. S., Rogers, J. A., Salandra, N., O'Callaghan, C., Fulton, F., Balletta, A. A., Pizziketti, K., & Brusilovskiy, E. (2016) · Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal · doi:10.1037/prj0000220 · Cited by 60
Predictive Validity of Patient and Therapist Attachment and Introject Styles
Bruck, E., Winston, A., Aderholt, S., & Muran, J. C. (2006) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2006.60.4.393 · Cited by 59
Leadership, Organizational Climate, and Working Alliance in a Children’s Mental Health Service System
Green, A. E., Albanese, B. J., Cafri, G., & Aarons, G. A. (2013) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-013-9668-5 · Cited by 71
“Internal consistency estimates of the three subscales based on the validation sample of 124 pairs of therapists and clients range from .90 to .92 for the client version and .83–.91 for the therapist version (Tracey and Kokotovic 1989).”
Psychotherapy supervision conducted by videoconferencing: a qualitative study of users’ experiences
Gammon, D., Sørlie, T., Bergvik, S., & Høifødt, T. S. (1998) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1258/1357633981931353 · Cited by 59
Effects of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Training on Clinical Psychology Trainee Stress, Therapist Skills and Attributes, and ACT Processes
Pakenham, K. I. (2015) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1924 · Cited by 58
“Working alliance was assessed using the Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for the treatment of headache pain: A mixed-methods analysis comparing treatment responders and treatment non-responders
Day, M. A., Thorn, B. E., & Rubin, N. J. (2014) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2013.12.018 · Cited by 58
The Adolescent Therapeutic Alliance Scale (ATAS): Initial psychometrics and prediction of outcome in family-based substance abuse prevention counseling
Stambaugh, L. F., Hogue, A., Johnson, S., Diamond, G. M., & Liddle, H. A. (2005) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300512331326994 · Cited by 58
“Two other studies have found the alliance to be a one-factor construct in adolescent samples (DiGiuseppe et al., 1996; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
A primer on meta-analysis of correlation coefficients: The relationship between patient-reported therapeutic alliance and adult attachment style as an illustration
Diener, M. J., Hilsenroth, M. J., & Weinberger, J. L. (2008) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300802491410 · Cited by 58
Assessing Treatment Readiness in Violent Offenders
Day, A., Howells, K., Casey, S., Ward, T. J., Chambers, J. C., & Birgden, A. (2008) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260508317200 · Cited by 57
“…the therapist and the client’s sense of collaborative working; the Working Alliance Inventory-Client Short-Form (WAI-C SF; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), a 12-item self-report measure of working alliance, that consists of three subscales: goals, tasks, and bond; and the…”
The associations among improvement and alliance expectations, alliance during treatment, and treatment outcome for major depressive disorder
Barber, J. P., Zilcha‐Mano, S., Gallop, R., Barrett, M. S., McCarthy, K. S., & Dinger, U. (2014) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2013.871080 · Cited by 56
“Patients completed the 12-item Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form (WAI-S; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Clients' collaboration in therapy: Self-perceptions and relationships with client psychological functioning, interpersonal relations, and motivation.
Bachelor, A., Laverdière, O., Gamache, D., & Bordeleau, V. (2007) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.44.2.175 · Cited by 57
“Conceptual models of the therapeutic relationship and its components that underlie current measurement approaches have shown little correspondence to clients’ views of the relationship and the aspects they perceive as relevant (Hatcher & Barends, 1996; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Client and Counselor Discussions of Racial and Ethnic Differences in Counseling: An Exploratory Investigation
Zhang, N., & Burkard, A. W. (2008) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2008.tb00072.x · Cited by 57
Reducing Dropout in Treatment for Depression: Translating Dropout Predictors Into Individualized Treatment Recommendations
Zilcha-Mano, S., Keefe, J. R., Chui, H., Rubin, A., Barrett, M. S., & Barber, J. P. (2016) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.15m10081 · Cited by 55
Parent-Professional Alliance and Outcomes of Child, Parent, and Family Treatment: A Systematic Review
de Greef, M., Pijnenburg, H. M. P. H. M., van Hattum, M. J. C., McLeod, B. D., & Scholte, R. H. J. (2016) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-016-0620-5 · Cited by 70
GENERAL AND SUPERVISION-SPECIFIC ATTACHMENT STYLES: RELATIONS TO STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF FIELD SUPERVISORS
Bennett, S., Mohr, J. J., BrintzenhofeSzoc, K., & Saks, L. V. (2008) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.5175/jswe.2008.200700016 · Cited by 56
The Physician–Patient Working Alliance and Patient Psychological Attachment, Adherence, Outcome Expectations, and Satisfaction in a Sample of Rheumatology Patients
Fuertes, J. N., Anand, P., Haggerty, G., Kestenbaum, M., & Rosenblum, G. C. (2013) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2013.875885 · Cited by 58
“The PPWA was developed based on a measure used in psychotherapy research originally adapted by Tracey and Kokotovic.(41) The three subscales of the original Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI-S) remain in the PPWA, and they are as follows: agreement on the goals of treatment, agreement on the tasks needed to achiev…”
Method
Early in-session predictors of response to trauma-focused cognitive therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder
Brady, F., Warnock‐Parkes, E., Barker, C., & Ehlers, A. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.10.001 · Cited by 60
Person-Centered Care and the Therapeutic Alliance
Hamovitch, E., Choy-Brown, M., & Stanhope, V. (2018) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-018-0295-z · Cited by 59
Relationships among patient hostility, anger expression, depression, and the working alliance in a work hardening program
Burns, J. W., Higdon, L. J., Mullen, J. T., Lansky, D., & Wei, J. M. (1999) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf02895037 · Cited by 56
The relationship between the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy and suicidal experiences: A systematic review
Huggett, C., Gooding, P. A., Haddock, G., Quigley, J., & Pratt, D. (2022) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2726 · Cited by 62
The Role of the Therapeutic Alliance in the Regulation of Emotion in Psychosis: An Attachment Perspective
Owens, K. A., Haddock, G., & Berry, K. (2012) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1793 · Cited by 55
A phase-specific psychological therapy for people with problematic cannabis use following a first episode of psychosis: a randomized controlled trial
Barrowclough, C., Marshall, M., Gregg, L., Fitzsimmons, M., Tomenson, B., Warburton, J., & Lobban, F. A. (2014) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291714000208 · Cited by 55
“WAI scores indicated good therapeutic alliance (mean total scores for therapists and clients, respectively, were 62.3 (S.D.=10.1) and 65.3 (S.D.=9.5).”
MethodInfluential
A Randomized Controlled Trial of an Online Relapse Prevention Program for Adolescents in Substance Abuse Treatment
Trudeau, K. J., Black, R. A., Kamon, J. L., & Sussman, S. Y. (2017) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-016-9387-5 · Cited by 57
“The Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form (Clients) (WAI-S; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989) is a short form (12 items) of the original WAI (36 items).”
Background
The role of attachment style, attachment to therapist, and working alliance in response to psychological therapy
Taylor, P. J., Rietzschel, J., Danquah, A., & Berry, K. (2014) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12045 · Cited by 54
Impact of Therapist Emotional Intelligence on Psychotherapy
Kaplowitz, M. J., Safran, J. D., & Muran, C. J. (2011) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3182083efb · Cited by 67
“Patients completed a postsession questionnaire (Muran et al., 2004) after all 30 sessions, which included a 12-item version of the Working Alliance Inventory (Horvath and Greenberg, 1989; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundMethod
Client attachment to therapist: Relation to client personality and symptomatology, and their contributions to the therapeutic alliance.
Bachelor, A., Meunier, G., Laverdière, O., & Gamache, D. (2010) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0022079 · Cited by 53
Client satisfaction and social desirability in psychotherapy
Gaston, L., & Sabourin, S. (1992) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/0149-7189(92)90085-9 · Cited by 54
The bilevel structure of the Outcome Questionnaire–45.
Bludworth, J., Tracey, T. J. G., & Glidden-Tracey, C. E. (2010) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0019187 · Cited by 56
“Using logic similar to that applied by Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) in a study of the structure of the Working Alliance Inventory, each item on the OQ-45 was hypothesized to be indicative of two factors at different logical levels: a common general factor and more specific factors.”
MethodSelf-citation

Authors: Tracey, T. J., & Kokotovic, A. M.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID: Tracey, Terence J.
Venue: Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1989-09
Volume: 1
Issue: 3
Pages: 207-210
ISSN: 1040-3590 (ISSN-L)
1939-134X
DOI: 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207
OpenAlex: W2091499037
Cited by: 1,501
References: 15
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 104 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 67 · 2012: 72
FWCI: 4.61
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics
Keywords: Working Alliance Inventory, therapeutic relationship, factor structure, psychotherapy, counseling center clients, therapist ratings

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Factor structure of the working alliance inventory

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks