Cited by 1,501Psychotherapy Techniques and ApplicationsCounseling Practices and SupervisionCounseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics

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Factor structure of the working alliance inventory

Tracey, Terence J., Kokotovic, Anna M.·1989·Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

DOI 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207

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Abstract

The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) was completed after the 1st psychotherapy session by 84 university counseling center clients and 15 therapists rating their work with 123 clients

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Crossref · 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207

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Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures.
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The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance.
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Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size.
Marsh, H. W., Balla, J. R., & McDonald, R. P. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.391 · Cited by 3,953
Development and validation of the working alliance inventory
Horvath, A. O., & Greenberg, L. S. (1989) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.36.2.223 · Cited by 3,520
The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook.
Greenberg, L. S., & Pinsof, W. M. (1986) · Cited by 1,386
The development of the Working Alliance Inventory.
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The Relationship in Counseling and Psychotherapy
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Two Helping Alliance Methods for Predicting Outcomes of Psychotherapy
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Items 301–400 of 1,011

Personality traits, interpersonal problems and therapeutic alliance in early schizophrenia spectrum disorders
Johansen, R. E. B., Melle, I. S., Iversen, V. C., & Hestad, K. A. (2013) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.05.016 · Cited by 53
“The Working Alliance Inventory-Short Version (WAI-S) [48], a 12-item short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) [49] was applied to assess the therapeutic alliance.”
Method
Alliance ruptures and repairs in psychotherapy in primary care
Larsson, M. H., Falkenström, F., Andersson, G., & Holmqvist, R. (2016) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2016.1174345 · Cited by 63
“In the present study we, however, used a revised version of the WAI short form, the WAI-SR (Hatcher & Gillaspy, 2006), while Stevens et al. (2007) used an earlier short version of WAI (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Taoist cognitive therapy: treatment of generalized anxiety disorder in a Chinese immigrant woman
Chang, D. F., Hung, T., Ng, N., Ling, A., Chen, T., Cao, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2016) · Asian American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1037/aap0000052 · Cited by 53
“Mrs. Liu completed the Working Alliance Inventory-Client version (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) during Weeks 4, 8, and 16 (termination).”
Method
Videoconference- and cell phone-based cognitive-behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a case series.
Vogel, P. A., Launes, G., Moen, E. M., Solem, S., Hansen, B., Håland, Å. T., & Himle, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.10.009 · Cited by 51
A Preliminary Comparison Study of Online and Face-to-Face Counseling: Client Perceptions of Three Factors
Holmes, C. M., & Foster, V. (2012) · Journal of Technology in Human Services · doi:10.1080/15228835.2012.662848 · Cited by 54
A comparison of face-to-face and distance coaching practices: Coaches' perceptions of the role of the working alliance in problem resolution.
Martin-Berry, R., Ashby, J. S., Gnilka, P. B., & Matheny, K. B. (2011) · Consulting psychology journal · doi:10.1037/a0026735 · Cited by 52
Therapist-reported alliance: Is it really a predictor of outcome?
Zilcha‐Mano, S., Solomonov, N., Chui, H. T., McCarthy, K. S., Barrett, M. S., & Barber, J. P. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000106 · Cited by 55
“The quality of the therapeutic alliance was assessed with the 12-item Working Alliance Inventory (WAI)Short Form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), using the Patient and Therapist versions.”
Race/ethnicity as a predictor of change in working alliance during cognitive behavioral therapy for intimate partner violence perpetrators.
Walling, S. M., Suvak, M. K., Howard, J. M., Taft, C. T., & Murphy, C. M. (2011) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0025751 · Cited by 51
Therapists’ attitudes towards the use of AI in therapeutic practice: considering the therapeutic alliance
Prescott, J., & Hanley, T. (2023) · Mental Health and Social Inclusion · doi:10.1108/mhsi-02-2023-0020 · Cited by 49
Predictors and moderators of Internet-based cognitive behavior therapy for obsessive–compulsive disorder: Results from a randomized trial
Andersson, E., Ljótsson, B., Hedman, E., Enander, J., Kaldo, V., Andersson, G., Lindefors, N., & Rück, C. (2015) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2014.10.003 · Cited by 52
Secluded and restrained patients' perceptions of their treatment
Soininen, P., Valimaki, M. A., Noda, T., Puukka, P. J., Korkeila, J. A., Joffe, G., & Putkonen, H. (2012) · International Journal of Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1447-0349.2012.00838.x · Cited by 52
Predictors of Early Therapeutic Alliance Among Adolescents in Substance Abuse Treatment
Garner, B. R., Godley, S. H., & Funk, R. R. (2008) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2008.10399761 · Cited by 52
Modeling group process constructs at three stages in group psychotherapy
Bakali, J. V., Baldwin, S. A., & Lorentzen, S. (2009) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300902894430 · Cited by 52
“Working Alliance Inventory Short Form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The efficacy of VIPP-V parenting training for parents of young children with a visual or visual-and-intellectual disability: a randomized controlled trial
Platje, E., Sterkenburg, P. S., Overbeek, M. M. M., Kef, S., & Schuengel, C. (2018) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2018.1428997 · Cited by 53
“Working alliance according to both the parent receiving VIPP-V and the VIPP-V worker was assessed using the Dutch translation of the short version of the WAI (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989; Vertommen & Vervaeke, 1990) at posttest (T1).”
Method
Motivational interviewing with underage college drinkers: a preliminary look at the role of empathy and alliance
Feldstein, S. W., & Forcehimes, A. A. (2007) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990701522690 · Cited by 51
“Following the MI session, therapists and participants reported their perceptions of alliance using the Working Alliance Inventory—Short Form (WAI-S) (21).”
Method
Videoconferencing psychotherapy for panic disorder and agoraphobia: Outcome and treatment processes from a non-randomized non-inferiority trial
Bouchard, S., Allard, M., Robillard, G., Dumoulin, S., Guitard, T., Loranger, C., Green-Demers, I., Marchand, A., Renaud, P., Cournoyer, L.-G., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02164 · Cited by 52
“The long 36-item version offers an excellent general measure of working alliance, but it is recommended to analyze the shorter 12-item version if one wants to measure the three first-order unique aspects of the alliance that are the Goal, Task and Bond subscales (Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
The Multitheoretical List of Therapeutic Interventions – 30 items (MULTI-30)
Solomonov, N., McCarthy, K. S., Gorman, B. S., & Barber, J. P. (2018) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1422216 · Cited by 52
“Following Tracey and Kokotovic (1989), we conducted separate analyses for the patient and therapist data.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The EVIDENT-trial: protocol and rationale of a multicenter randomized controlled trial testing the effectiveness of an online-based psychological intervention
Klein, J. P., Berger, T., Schröder, J., Späth, C., Meyer, B., Caspar, F., Lutz, W., Greiner, W., Hautzinger, M., Rose, M., et al. (2013) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-13-239 · Cited by 52
“version) The WAI-short (WAI-S) is a 12-item self-report measure of Working Alliance [50].”
Background
Client Satisfaction with Three Therapies in the Treatment of Alcohol Dependence: Results from Project MATCH
Donovan, D. M., Kadden, R. M., DiClemente, C. C., & Carroll, K. M. (2002) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1080/10550490290088090 · Cited by 51
The role of problem-solving appraisal in the process and outcome of career counseling
Heppner, M. J., Lee, D., Heppner, P. P., McKinnon, L. C., Multon, K. D., & Gysbers, N. C. (2003) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0001-8791(03)00100-3 · Cited by 52
Therapeutic alliance, cohesion and outcome in a long-term analytic group. A preliminary study
Lorentzen, S., Sexton, H. C., & Høglend, P. A. (2004) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039480310000770 · Cited by 51
“Convergent validity was assessed by comparing the alliance measure to the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI), short version (27).”
Method
Barriers to and facilitative processes of endocrine therapy adherence among women with breast cancer
Bright, E. E., Petrie, K. J., Partridge, A. H., & Stanton, A. L. (2016) · Breast Cancer Research and Treatment · doi:10.1007/s10549-016-3871-3 · Cited by 55
Home-based psychiatric outpatient care through videoconferencing for depression: a randomized controlled follow-up trial
Hungerbuehler, I., Valiengo, L., Loch, A. A., Rössler, W., & Gattaz, W. F. (2016) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/mental.5675 · Cited by 46
“Additional outcome measures included treatment adherence, validated by the number of missed appointments and dropouts, medication compliance, satisfaction with treatment, and working alliance, measured by the following self-reported instruments: Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-4) [16], Client Satisfaction Que…”
Method
Effect of Assertive Community Treatment for Patients with Substance Use Disorder: A Systematic Review
Penzenstadler, L. E., Soares, C., Anci, E., Molodynski, A., & Khazaal, Y. (2019) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000496742 · Cited by 50
Therapeutic Alliance in Technology-Based Interventions for the Treatment of Depression: Systematic Review
Wehmann, E., Köhnen, M., Härter, M. C., & Liebherz, S. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/17195 · Cited by 51
“Five studies [29-32,35] relied on the WAI in its original format of 36 items (7-point Likert scale) [16], the short form version (WAI-S) with 12 items (7-point Likert scale) [38], or the short form-revised version (WAI-SR) with only positively worded items (5-point Likert scale) [39].”
Method
Therapist effects and the outcome–alliance correlation in cognitive behavioral therapy for panic disorder with agoraphobia
Huppert, J. D., Kivity, Y., Barlow, D. H., Gorman, J. M., Shear, M. K., & Woods, S. W. (2013) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2013.11.001 · Cited by 56
Predictors of the Working Alliance in Assertive Community Treatment
Calsyn, R. J., Klinkenberg, W. D., Morse, G. A., & Lemming, M. R. (2006) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-005-9022-7 · Cited by 50
“The twelve-item version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) was used to measure the strength of the working alliance ( Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ) after 3 and 15 months in treatment.”
Method
Patient–therapist convergence in alliance ratings as a predictor of outcome in psychotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder
Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., Laws, H. B., Westra, H. A., & Antony, M. M. (2017) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1303209 · Cited by 58
“Patients and therapists completed their respective versions of the Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form (WAI-S; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), a widely used 12-item measure based on Bordin’s (1979) conceptualization of the alliance as consisting of patient– therapist…”
Method
Clinicians' conflicting emotional responses to high suicide-risk patients—Association with short-term suicide behaviors: A prospective pilot study
Yaseen, Z. S., GALYNKER, I. I., Cohen, L. J., & Briggs, J. (2017) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.03.013 · Cited by 55
The relation of secondary traumatization to therapists’ perceptions of the working alliance with clients who commit sexual abuse.
Carmel, M. J. S., & Friedlander, M. L. (2009) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015422 · Cited by 52
Predictors of Response and Mechanisms of Change in an Organizational Skills Intervention for Students with ADHD
Langberg, J. M., Becker, S. P., Epstein, J. N., Vaughn, A. J., & Girio-Herrera, E. (2013) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-012-9662-5 · Cited by 49
“The short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-Short; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989) was used to measure SMH provider-student therapeutic alliance.”
Efficacy of narrative reformulation during cognitive analytic therapy for depression: Randomized dismantling trial
Kellett, S., Stockton, C., Marshall, H., Hall, J., Jennings, C., & Delgadillo, J. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.070 · Cited by 50
Personality disorder and early therapeutic alliance in two time-limited therapies
Tufekcioglu, S., Muran, J., Safran, J., & Winston, A. (2013) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2013.843803 · Cited by 44
“One is the 12-item version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI: Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), from which an overall mean score can be calculated.”
Background
Experiences of Christian clients in secular psychotherapy: A mixed-methods investigation.
Cragun, C., & Friedlander, M. L. (2012) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028283 · Cited by 49
Resistance, Reluctance, and Readiness in Perpetrators of Abuse Against Women and Children
SCOTT, K. L., & King, C. B. (2007) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838007307593 · Cited by 49
How therapist self-disclosure relates to alliance and outcomes: A naturalistic study
Levitt, H. M., Minami, T., Greenspan, S. B., Puckett, J. A., Henretty, J. R., Reich, C. M., & Berman, J. S. (2015) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2015.1090396 · Cited by 49
“The Client Working Alliance Inventory (Client WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was used to assess perceived therapeutic alliance between the client and therapist.”
Method
Positive Regard and Affirmation
Farber, B. A., & Doolin, E. M. (2011) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199737208.003.0008 · Cited by 49
Common and specific process factors in cardiac rehabilitation: Independent and interactive effects of the working alliance and self-efficacy.
Burns, J. W., & Evon, D. M. (2007) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.6.684 · Cited by 48
Examining the Relationship between Choice, Therapeutic Alliance and Outcomes in Mental Health Services
Stanhope, V., Barrenger, S., Salzer, M., & Marcus, S. (2013) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm3030191 · Cited by 48
“92 [35].”
The relation between changes in patients' interpersonal impact messages and outcome in treatment for chronic depression.
Constantino, M. J., Laws, H. B., Arnow, B. A., Klein, D. N., ROTHBAUM, B. O., & Manber, R. (2012) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028351 · Cited by 48
“Given that previous analyses of Keller et al.’s (2000) trial data showed that early and middle patient-rated therapeutic alliance quality were positively associated with posttreatment outcome (Klein et al., 2003), we also examined the association between the early HS vector and alliance (as assessed with the brief ver…”
Method
Exploration of session process: Relationship to depth and alliance.
Lingiardi, V., Colli, A., Gentile, D., & Tanzilli, A. (2011) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0025248 · Cited by 48
Trajectories and Predictors of Response to the Challenging Horizons Program for Adolescents With ADHD
Langberg, J. M., Evans, S. W., Schultz, B. K., Becker, S. P., Altaye, M., & Girio-Herrera, E. L. (2016) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2016.01.001 · Cited by 48
“The short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-Short; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) was used to measure the student-counselor working alliance.”
Method
Attachment history as a moderator of the alliance outcome relationship in adolescents.
Zack, S., Castonguay, L. G., Boswell, J. F., McAleavey, A. A., Adelman, R. W., Kraus, D. R., & Pate, G. A. (2015) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0037727 · Cited by 48
“Confirmatory factor analysis by Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) found validity for this bilevel model.”
Method
The Supervisory Relationship: A Conceptual and Psychometric Review of Measures
Tangen, J. L., & Borders, D. (2016) · Counselor Education and Supervision · doi:10.1002/ceas.12043 · Cited by 49
A systematic review of team formulation in clinical psychology practice: Definition, implementation, and outcomes
Geach, N., Moghaddam, N. G., & Boos, D. D. (2017) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12155 · Cited by 48
Culturally adapted Family Intervention (CaFI) for African-Caribbean people diagnosed with schizophrenia and their families: a mixed-methods feasibility study of development, implementation and acceptability
Edge, D., Degnan, A., Cotterill, S., Berry, K., Baker, J. A., Drake, R., & Abel, K. M. (2018) · Health Services and Delivery Research · doi:10.3310/hsdr06320 · Cited by 51
The abrupt transition from face-to-face to online treatment for eating disorders: a pilot examination of patients’ perspectives during the COVID-19 lockdown
Lewis, Y. D., Elran‐Barak, R., Tov, R. G.-S., & Zubery, E. (2021) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-021-00383-y · Cited by 49
“Working alliance was assessed using the short version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-S [32]), a widely used instrument, the Hebrew version of which has also been used extensively in studies [33].”
Method
The Art and Science of Diabetes Education A Culture Out of Balance
Anderson, R. M., & Funnell, M. M. (2008) · The Science of Diabetes Self-Management and Care · doi:10.1177/0145721707312398 · Cited by 48
“suited for use in diabetes education than the measures we identified.(92-125) Below, we report on 2 measures for which there is strong psychometric support and that have been”
BackgroundMethod
Counselor self-disclosure, East Asian American client adherence to Asian cultural values, and counseling process.
Kim, B. S. K., Hill, C. E., Gelso, C. J., Goates-Jones, M. K., Asay, P. A., & Harbin, J. M. (2003) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.50.3.324 · Cited by 48
Therapeutic alliance and progress in couple therapy: multiple perspectives
Glebova, T., Bartle‐Haring, S., Gangamma, R., Knerr, M., Delaney, R. O., Meyer, K. J., McDowell, T. L., Adkins, K., & Grafsky, E. L. (2010) · Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6427.2010.00503.x · Cited by 48
Client Adherence to Asian Cultural Values, Common Factors in Counseling, and Session Outcome With Asian American Clients at a University Counseling Center
Kim, B. S. K., Ng, G. F., & Ahn, A. J. (2009) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2009.tb00560.x · Cited by 47
The Cognitive Therapy Scale and Cognitive Therapy Scale-Revised as Measures of Therapist Competence in Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Depression: Relations with Short and Long Term Outcome
Kazantzis, N., Clayton, X., Cronin, T. J., Farchione, D., Limburg, K., & Dobson, K. S. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9919-4 · Cited by 48
The Modular Assessment of Risk for Imminent Suicide (MARIS): A validation study of a novel tool for suicide risk assessment
Calati, R., Cohen, L. J., Schuck, A., Levy, D., Bloch-Elkouby, S., Barzilay, S., Rosenfield, P. J., & Galynker, I. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.12.001 · Cited by 47
Guilt, Shame, Empathy, Self-Esteem, and Traumas: New Data for the Validation of the Interpersonal Guilt Rating Scale–15 Self-Report (IGRS-15s)
Faccini, F., Gazzillo, F., Gorman, B. S., Luca, E. D., & Dazzi, N. (2020) · Psychodynamic Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/pdps.2020.48.1.79 · Cited by 47
Internal validity of project MATCH treatments: Discriminability and integrity.
Carroll, K. M., Connors, G. J., Cooney, N. L., DiClemente, C. C., Donovan, D. M., Kadden, R. R., Longabaugh, R. L., Rounsaville, B. J., Wirtz, P. W., & Zweben, A. (1998) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.66.2.290 · Cited by 208
“Second, the psychometric properties of the WAI are comparatively well established ( Tichenor & Hill, 1989 ; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989 ). Third, there are parallel forms of the WAI for rating by the patient and the therapist.”
Background
Structural characteristics and external correlates of the Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form.
Smits, D., Luyckx, K., Smits, D., Stinckens, N., & Claes, L. (2015) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000066 · Cited by 46
Are there subtypes of panic disorder? An interpersonal perspective.
Zilcha‐Mano, S., McCarthy, K. S., Dinger, U., Chambless, D. L., Milrod, B. L., Kunik, L., & Barber, J. P. (2015) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039373 · Cited by 45
“The WAI-P (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item patient’s self-report questionnaire assessing the quality of the therapeutic alliance.”
Background
Comparison of dream interpretation, event, interpretation, and unstructured sessions in brief therapy.
Diemer, R. A., Lobell, L. K., Vivino, B. L., & Hill, C. E. (1996) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.43.1.99 · Cited by 44
Item response theory analysis of Working Alliance Inventory, revised response format, and new Brief Alliance Inventory
Mallinckrodt, B., & Tekie, Y. T. (2016) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2015.1061718 · Cited by 44
“Comparison of difficulty bandwidths for subscales of the original 36-item WAI (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989), and brief forms (TK) developed by Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) and (HG) by Hatcher and Gillaspy (2006). information peak and shift of the curve along the x-axis is more informative than the…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Integrative Testimonial Therapy
Knaevelsrud, C., Böttche, M., Pietrzak, R. H., Freyberger, H. J., Renneberg, B., & Kuwert, P. (2014) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000000178 · Cited by 44
“The Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI-S; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item, self-report questionnaire consisting of three subscales designed to assess three primary components of the working alliance: a) how closely the client and therapist agree on and are mutually engaged in the goals of treatment (goal);…”
MethodInfluential
White Counselor Trainees' Racial Identity and Working Alliance Perceptions
Burkard, A. W., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Alfonso, V. C. (1999) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1999.tb02455.x · Cited by 46
The impact of telephone versus e-mail therapist guidance on treatment outcomes, therapeutic alliance and treatment engagement in Internet-delivered CBT for depression: A randomised pilot trial
Lindner, P., Olsson, E. L., Johnsson, A., Dahlin, M., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2014) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2014.09.001 · Cited by 39
“Adding estimated appropriated therapist time, mid-treatment WAI-S scores, or self-rated treatment engagement as separate covariates did not result in any effect of group.”
MethodInfluential
The Role of Therapeutic Alliance in Mindfulness Interventions: Therapeutic alliance in Mindfulness Training for Smokers
Goldberg, S. B., Davis, J. M., & Hoyt, W. T. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21973 · Cited by 42
“While the items included on the WAI- G may seem somewhat at odds with the objective (or perhaps more accurately nonobjectives) of mindfulness training, this apparent contradiction was likely less problematic in the specific context of MTS.”
Influential
The role of leaders' working alliance in premarital education.
Owen, J. J., RHOADES, G. K., Stanley, S. M., & Markman, H. J. (2011) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022084 · Cited by 44
“S, Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Predictors of Medication Continuity in Children With ADHD
Brinkman, W. B., Sucharew, H., Majcher, J. H., & Epstein, J. N. (2018) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2017-2580 · Cited by 47
Therapeutic Alliance and Improvements in Work Performance Over Time in Patients With Schizophrenia
Davis, L. W., & Lysaker, P. H. (2007) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000261954.36030.a1 · Cited by 43
“Working Alliance Inventory-Short Version—Observer Form (WAI-S; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989) is a 12-item measure based on Bordin’s (1979) transtheoretical conceptualization that views TA as composed of 3 components—the therapeutic bond, agreement between client and therapist on goals, and agreement…”
Background
The magnitude of client and therapist working alliance ratings.
Tryon, G. S., Blackwell, S. C., & Hammel, E. F. (2008) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0014338 · Cited by 43
The relationship between perceived injustice and the working alliance: a cross-sectional study of patients with persistent pain attending multidisciplinary rehabilitation
Scott, W., Milioto, M., Trost, Z., & Sullivan, M. J. L. (2016) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.3109/09638288.2015.1129444 · Cited by 48
“The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI) [13,33] was used”
MethodInfluential
A randomized controlled trial of functional analytic psychotherapy versus watchful waiting: Enhancing social connectedness and reducing anxiety and avoidance.
Maitland, D. W. M., Petts, R. A., Knott, L. E., Briggs, C. A., Moore, J. A., & Gaynor, S. T. (2016) · Behavior Analysis Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/bar0000051 · Cited by 43
Supervision for Counselors Working With Eating Disorders Groups: Countertransference Issues Related to Body Image, Food, and Weight
DeLucia‐Waack, J. L. (1999) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1999.tb02463.x · Cited by 45
The factor structure of the Working Alliance Inventory short-form in youth psychotherapy: an empirical investigation
Cirasola, A., Midgley, N., Fonagy, P., Impact Consortium, & Martin, P. (2021) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1765041 · Cited by 42
Not Just a Non-specific Factor: Moderators of the Effect of Within- and Between-Clients Alliance on Outcome in CBT
Zilcha‐Mano, S., Muran, J. C., Eubanks, C. F., Safran, J. D., & Winston, A. (2017) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-017-9866-5 · Cited by 45
“The quality of the working alliance was assessed with the 12-item client version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989), repeatedly after each session.”
Method
Development and validation of the Working Alliance Inventory Dutch version for use in rehabilitation setting
Paap, D., Schrier, E., & Dijkstra, P. U. (2018) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2018.1471112 · Cited by 47
“We expected floor and ceiling effects to occur in <15% of the domains scores and we expected <5% of missing items (Hypotheses 1 and 2) (Hatcher and Gillaspy, 2006; Tracey and Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
The role of the working alliance in treatment for alcohol problems.
Cook, S., Heather, N., & McCambridge, J. (2015) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000058 · Cited by 42
“The 12-item short-form of the WAI has been validated and found to be interchangeable with the full form (Busseri & Tyler, 2003; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Structured brief therapy with a focus on dreams or loss for clients with troubling dreams and recent loss.
Hill, C. E., Zack, J. S., Wonnell, T. L., Hoffman, M. A., Rochlen, A. B., Goldberg, J. L., Nakayama, E. Y., Heaton, K. J., Kelley, F. A., Eiche, K., et al. (2000) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.47.1.90 · Cited by 42
Hispanic counselors' race and accent and Euro Americans' universal-diverse orientation: A study of initial perceptions.
Fuertes, J. N., & Gelso, C. J. (2000) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.6.2.211 · Cited by 44
Looking beyond the negatives: A time period analysis of positive cognitions, negative cognitions, and working alliance in cognitive–behavior therapy for panic disorder
Casey, L. M., Oei, T. P. S., & Newcombe, P. A. (2005) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300512331327038 · Cited by 41
“The total score on the WAI reflects the primary construct of working alliance of interest in the current study (see also Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Years of Clinical Experience and Therapist Professional Development: A Literature Review
Dawson, G. C. (2018) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-017-9373-8 · Cited by 16
“Using the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Tracey and Kokotovic 1989), which contains questions related to three factors evaluating alliance in terms of therapeutic bond, agreement on goals of therapy, and agreement on the tasks associated with therapy, to measure client ratings of the bond between…”
Method
Frequency and change mechanisms of psychotherapy among depressed patients: study protocol for a multicenter randomized trial comparing twice-weekly versus once-weekly sessions of CBT and IPT
Bruijniks, S. J. E., Bosmans, J. E., Peeters, F. P. M. L., Hollon, S. D., van Oppen, P., van den Boogaard, M., Dingemanse, P., Cuijpers, P. J., Arntz, A. R., Franx, G. C., et al. (2015) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0532-8 · Cited by 45
“Instruments: moderators and mechanisms of change Therapist-patient relationship: working alliance inventory-short form [55 – 58] The WAI intends to measure tasks (e.g. behaviors and cognitions that form the therapeutic process), bonds (e.g. positive personal attachments between patient and…”
An Examination of Therapist and Client Behavior in High- and Low-Alliance Sessions In Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and Process Experiential Therapy.
Watson, J. C., & McMullen, E. (2005) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.42.3.297 · Cited by 41
A re-examination of process–outcome relations in cognitive therapy for depression: Disaggregating within-patient and between-patient effects
Sasso, K. E., Strunk, D. R., Braun, J. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Brotman, M. A. (2015) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2015.1026423 · Cited by 41
“Observer ratings of the therapeutic alliance were made using the short form of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-S; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), which consists of 12 items rated on a 7-point Likerttype scale ranging from 0 (“not at all”) to 6 (“thoroughly”).”
Method
What matters more? Common or specific factors in cognitive behavioral therapy for OCD: Therapeutic alliance and expectations as predictors of treatment outcome
Strauss, A. Y., Huppert, J. D., Simpson, H. B., & Foa, E. B. (2018) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2018.03.007 · Cited by 41
Development of therapeutic alliance in mentalization-based treatment—Goals, Bonds, and Tasks in a specialized treatment for borderline personality disorder
Folmo, E. J., Stänicke, E., Johansen, M. S., Pedersen, G., & Kvarstein, E. H. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1831097 · Cited by 44
“The Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI-S; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), which is based on the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989), was applied regularly after three months, then every sixth month during treatment, and once more at discharge.”
Method
Process and Outcome in Cardiac Rehabilitation: An Examination of Cross-Lagged Effects.
Evon, D. M., & Burns, J. W. (2004) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.4.605 · Cited by 42
A brief, multidimensional, problem-solving psychotherapy outcome measure.
Heppner, P. P., Cooper, C. C., Mulholland, A. M., & Wei, M. (2001) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.48.3.330 · Cited by 42
The Working Alliance in Client-Centered and Process-Experiential Therapy of Depression
Weerasekera, P., Linder, B., Greenberg, L., & Watson, J. (2001) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1093/ptr/11.2.221 · Cited by 40
“Comparable psychometric properties have been found for the short form (Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Background
Changes in Hypothesized Mechanisms of Change Before and After Initiating Abstinence in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Women With Alcohol Use Disorder
Hallgren, K. A., Epstein, E. E., & McCrady, B. S. (2019) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2019.01.009 · Cited by 40
The Digital Therapeutic Alliance With Mental Health Chatbots: Diary Study and Thematic Analysis
Xu, Z., Lee, Y., Stasiak, K., Warren, J., & Lottridge, D. M. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/76642 · Cited by 50
An Offender Version of the Working Alliance Inventory-Short Revised
Tatman, A. W., & Love, K. M. (2010) · Journal of Offender Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/10509671003666560 · Cited by 40
“Tracey and Kokotovic ( 1989 ) conducted factor analyses on the larger, 36-item WAI, and developed the Working Alliance Inventory-Short (WAI-S), a 12-item version of the WAI.”
MethodInfluential
The Impact of Initial Factors on Therapeutic Alliance in Individual and Couples Therapy
Knerr, M., Bartle‐Haring, S., McDowell, T. L., Adkins, K., Delaney, R. O., Gangamma, R., Glebova, T., Grafsky, E. L., & Meyer, K. J. (2009) · Journal of Marital and Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2009.00176.x · Cited by 40
Parent training in foster families with children with behavior problems: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial
Maaskant, A. M., van Rooij, F. B., Overbeek, G. J., Oort, F. J., & Hermanns, J. M. A. (2016) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.09.005 · Cited by 43
“The short form of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI-S, Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989; original version Horvath & Greenberg, 1986, 1989) was used to assess the working alliance between the therapist and foster parents.”
Method
Intervention components and working alliance as predictors of individual career counseling effect on career decision-making difficulties
Milot‐Lapointe, F., Savard, R., & Corff, Y. L. (2018) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2018.03.001 · Cited by 42
Emotional Responses to Suicidal Patients: Factor Structure, Construct, and Predictive Validity of the Therapist Response Questionnaire-Suicide Form
Barzilay, S., Yaseen, Z. S., Hawes, M. T., Gorman, B. S., Altman, R., Foster, A. E., Apter, A., Rosenfield, P., & GALYNKER, I. I. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00104 · Cited by 43
“The questionnaire, described in detail in our previous study (25) comprises five items derived from the 79-item Therapist Response Questionnaire (TRQ; originally called the Countertransference Questionnaire (3, 26);) two items from the therapist form of the Working Alliance Inventory [WAI (27, 28)], and three rational…”
Method
Motivational interviewing quality assurance: A systematic review of assessment tools across research contexts
Hurlocker, M. C., Madson, M. B., & Schumacher, J. A. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101909 · Cited by 40
Relations among mother and home visitor personality, relationship quality, and amount of time spent in home visits
Sharp, E. A., Ispa, J. M., Thornburg, K. R., & Lane, V. (2003) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.10070 · Cited by 39
Predictors of therapeutic outcome and process
Botella, L., Corbella, S., Busqueta, L. B., Pacheco, M., Gómez, A. M., Herrero, O., Rabert, E. R., & Pedro, N. (2008) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503300801982773 · Cited by 40
“The short version of the WAI (WAI-S) used in this study was proposed by Tracey and Kokotovic (1989) after factor analyzing the WAI and making it shorter so as to facilitate its use in clinical settings (see Corbella & Botella, 2004).”
BackgroundMethod
Quantitative naturalistic methods for detecting change points in psychotherapy research: An illustration with alliance ruptures
Eubanks, C. F., Gorman, B. S., & Muran, J. C. (2012) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2012.693772 · Cited by 48
“The PSQ includes the 12- item version of the Working Alliance Inventory (WAI: Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989).”
Method
Real relationship, working alliance, transference/countertransference and outcome in time-limited counseling and psychotherapy
Fuertes, J. N., Gelso, C. J., Owen, J. J., & Cheng, D. (2013) · Counselling Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1080/09515070.2013.845548 · Cited by 40
“Working alliance inventory-short-therapist (T-WAI) and client forms (C-WAI; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989) Participants rated their emotional bond and their level of agreement with the tasks and goals of therapy with the 12-item short version of the client and therapist forms of the Working Alliance…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Culturally-adapted Family Intervention (CaFI) for African-Caribbeans diagnosed with schizophrenia and their families: a feasibility study protocol of implementation and acceptability
Edge, D., Degnan, A., Cotterill, S., Berry, K., Drake, R., Baker, J. A., Barrowclough, C., Hughes-Morley, A., Grey, P., Bhugra, D., et al. (2016) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-016-0070-2 · Cited by 40
“The Working Alliance Inventory (WAI)-short-form [68] is a 12-item self-report measure of the quality of”
Background
Specific and common processes as mediators of the long-term effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy integrated with motivational interviewing for generalized anxiety disorder
Constantino, M. J., Westra, H. A., Antony, M. M., & Coyne, A. E. (2019) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2017.1332794 · Cited by 38
“…variable of therapeutic alliance quality, clients completed the 12-item Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form (WAI-S; Horvath & Greenberg, 1989; Tracey & Kokotovic, 1989), a widely used measure based on Bordin’s (1979) pantheoretical conceptualization of the alliance as consisting of…”
Method

Authors: Tracey, T. J., & Kokotovic, A. M.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID: Tracey, Terence J.
Venue: Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1989-09
Volume: 1
Issue: 3
Pages: 207-210
ISSN: 1040-3590 (ISSN-L)
1939-134X
DOI: 10.1037/1040-3590.1.3.207
OpenAlex: W2091499037
Cited by: 1,501
References: 15
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 74 · 2018: 104 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 78 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 97 · 2013: 67 · 2012: 72
FWCI: 4.61
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling, Therapy, and Family Dynamics
Keywords: Working Alliance Inventory, therapeutic relationship, factor structure, psychotherapy, counseling center clients, therapist ratings

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