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Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses.

McDonald, Roderick P., Ho, Moon-Ho Ringo·2002·Psychological Methods

DOI 10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64

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Abstract

Principles for reporting analyses using structural equation modeling are reviewed, with the goal of supplying readers with complete and accurate information. It is recommended that every report give a detailed justification of the model used, along with plausible alternatives and an account of identifiability. Nonnormality and missing data problems should also be addressed. A complete set of parameters and their standard errors is desirable, and it will often be convenient to supply the correlation matrix and discrepancies, as well as goodness-of-fit indices, so that readers can exercise independent critical judgment. A survey of fairly representative studies compares recent practice with the principles of reporting recommended here.

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MethodInfluential
Solutions to the problems of incremental validity testing in relationship science
Wang, Y. A., & Eastwick, P. W. (2020) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12309 · Cited by 61
The Role of Active Coping in the Relationship Between Learning Burnout and Sleep Quality Among College Students in China
Wang, Y., Xiao, H., Zhang, X., & Wang, L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00647 · Cited by 56
“The RMSEA indicates how well the model fits the data, and a value below 0.8 indicates a fair fit (McDonald and Ho, 2002).”
MethodInfluential
Destination Attributes of Memorable Chinese Rural Tourism Experiences: Impact on Positive Arousal, Memory and Behavioral Intention
Huang, R., & Bu, H.-M. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s387241 · Cited by 56
The Mediating Role of Brand Trust and Brand Love between Brand Experience and Loyalty: A Study on Smartphones in China
Na, M., Li, R., Ali, M. H., Alam, S. S., Masukujjaman, M., & Ali, K. A. M. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13060502 · Cited by 56
Reciprocal Influences Between Parents’ Perceptions of Mother-Child and Father-Child Relationships: A Short-Term Longitudinal Study in Chinese Preschoolers
Zhang, X., & Chen, H. (2010) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221320903300387 · Cited by 56
“08 indicating an acceptable fit ( McDonald & Ho, 2002 ).”
BackgroundMethod
Reporting results from structural equation modeling analyses in Archives of Scientific Psychology.
Hoyle, R. H., & Isherwood, J. C. (2013) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000004 · Cited by 56
“Additional publications targeted researchers in particular disciplines, ranging from psychology (McDonald & Ho, 2002) to education (Schreiber, Nora, Stage, Barlow, & King, 2006) to information systems (Gefen, Rigdon, & Straub, 2011).”
Background
A quantitative measure of restricted and repetitive behaviors for early childhood
Wolff, J. J., Boyd, B. A., & Elison, J. T. (2016) · Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1186/s11689-016-9161-x · Cited by 56
Understanding Strengths in Relation to Complex Trauma and Mental Health Symptoms within Child Welfare
Kisiel, C., Summersett-Ringgold, F., Weil, L. E. G., & McClelland, G. M. (2016) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-016-0569-4 · Cited by 63
“In addition, the comparative fit index is 0.994 and the non-normed fit index is 0.981 (Bentler 1990; McDonald and Ho 2002); both are larger than 0.95 which is generally considered adequate.”
Influential
The Chinese version of the Perceived Stress Questionnaire: development and validation amongst medical students and workers
Meng, R., Li, J., Wang, Z., Zhang, D., Liu, B., Luo, Y., Hu, Y., & Yu, C. (2020) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-020-01307-1 · Cited by 58
“08 (denotes “a reasonable fit”) [74, 75], Weighted Root Mean Square Residual (WRMR) < 1.”
Background
Employee voice behavior as a critical factor for organizational sustainability in the telecommunications industry
Rubbab, U.-E., & Naqvi, S. M. M. R. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0238451 · Cited by 61
Is rural food security primarily associated with smallholder agriculture or with commercial agriculture?: An approach to the case of Mexico using structural equation modeling
Galeana-Pizaña, J. M., Couturier, S., Figueroa, D., & Jiménez-Ortega, A. D. (2021) · Agricultural Systems · doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103091 · Cited by 57
A Psychometric Evaluation of the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale–Short Form With Turkish University Students
Büyükgöze‐Kavas, A. (2013) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072713484561 · Cited by 55
The Direct and Indirect Associations between Childhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Adolescent Gun Violence
Beardslee, J., Docherty, M., Mulvey, E. P., & Pardini, D. A. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2019.1644646 · Cited by 60
“Conventional cutoffs for the RMSEA include values between .05 and .08 for acceptable fit and values less than .05 for good fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
BackgroundMethod
Reporting Practice in Multilevel Modeling: A Revisit After 10 Years
Luo, W., Li, H., Baek, E., Chen, S., Lam, K. H., & Semma, B. (2021) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654321991229 · Cited by 70
“McDonald and Ho (2002) recommended to revisit structural equation modeling (SEM) reporting practices occasionally until practice conforms with principles.”
Background
Proactive Parenting and Children's Effortful Control: Mediating Role of Language and Indirect Intervention Effects
Chang, H., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Gardner, F. E. M., & Wilson, M. N. (2013) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12069 · Cited by 67
Impact of oppositional defiant disorder dimensions on the temporal ordering of conduct problems and depression across childhood and adolescence in girls
Hipwell, A. E., Stepp, S. D., Feng, X., Burke, J., Battista, D. R., Loeber, R., & Keenan, K. E. (2011) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02448.x · Cited by 59
Factors influencing the frequency of children's consumption of soft drinks
Pettigrew, S., Jongenelis, M. I., Chapman, K. L., & Miller, C. L. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.080 · Cited by 57
“…‘good’ fit if the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) are ≥ .95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999; Yu & Muthén, 2002), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is ≤ .06 (McDonald & Ho, 2002), and the Standardised Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) is < .08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999).”
Background
How personality and risk-taking attitude affect the behavior of adventure recreationists
Lee, T. H., & Tseng, C. H. (2015) · Tourism Geographies · doi:10.1080/14616688.2014.1000955 · Cited by 55
“The goodness-of-fit statistics, such as the x2 test, GFI, AGFI, NFI, NNFI, CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR, were applied to assess the structure model (J€oreskog & S€orbom, 1996; McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
MethodResultInfluential
Salt Content Impacts Food Preferences and Intake among Children
Bouhlal, S., Chabanet, C., Issanchou, S., & Nicklaus, S. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053971 · Cited by 54
Living up to safety values in health care: The effect of leader behavioral integrity on occupational safety.
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Leroy, H., Dierynck, B., Simons, T. L., Savage, G. T., McCaughey, D., & Leon, M. R. (2013) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034086 · Cited by 61
Function and friction at work: a multidimensional analysis of work outcomes in cancer survivors
Moskowitz, M. C., Todd, B. L., Chen, R., & Feuerstein, M. (2014) · Journal of Cancer Survivorship · doi:10.1007/s11764-013-0340-4 · Cited by 55
Children’s false memory and true disclosure in the face of repeated questions
Schaaf, J. M., Alexander, K. W., & Goodman, G. S. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2007.09.002 · Cited by 55
Assessing the use of the brand personality scale in team sport
Ross, S. (2007) · International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing · doi:10.1504/ijsmm.2008.015959 · Cited by 55
Screening for Eating Disorders in Undergraduate Women: Norms and Validity of the Spanish Version of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q)
Villarroel, A. M., Penelo, E., Portell, M., & Raich, R. M. (2009) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9177-6 · Cited by 55
“Goodness-of-fit was assessed with the common fit indices ( McDonald and Ho 2002 ).”
Method
Integrative Tests of a Multidimensional Model of Organizational Identification
Boroş, S., Curșeu, P. L., & Miclea, M. (2011) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000051 · Cited by 55
The role of perceived behavioural control in the constraint-negotiation process: the case of solo travel
Chung, J. Y., Baik, H.-J., & Lee, C. (2016) · Leisure Studies · doi:10.1080/02614367.2016.1190780 · Cited by 55
“Post hoc modifications should be used in SEM only if there are robust theoretical or empirical justifications for doing so (MacCallum & Austin, 2000; McDonald & Ho, 2002; Nunkoo, Ramkissoon, & Gursoy, 2013).”
Method
A model of mobile technologies acceptance for knowledge transfer by employees
Kuciapski, M. (2017) · Journal of Knowledge Management · doi:10.1108/jkm-03-2016-0136 · Cited by 53
Factors affecting elementary and junior high school teachers’ behavioral intentions to school disaster preparedness based on the theory of planned behavior
Wang, J., & Tsai, N. (2021) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102757 · Cited by 54
Understanding customer participation in CSR activities: The impact of perceptions of CSR, affective commitment, brand equity, and corporate reputation
Kim, Y., Hur, W., & Lee, L. (2023) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103436 · Cited by 58
Adaptive, maladaptive, mediational, and bidirectional processes of relational and physical aggression, relational and physical victimization, and peer liking
Kawabata, Y., Tseng, W., & Crick, N. R. (2013) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21517 · Cited by 54
Integrating competing dimensional models of personality: Linking the SNAP, TCI, and NEO using Item Response Theory.
Stepp, S. D., Yu, L., Miller, J. D., Hallquist, M. N., Trull, T. J., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2011) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/a0025905 · Cited by 54
“…le ss th an 5% (o nl y im pa ct ed N E O sc al es ). d N um be r of ite m s re ta in ed fo llo w in g IR T ca lib ra tio n. Sc al e w as re ve rs esc or ed so hi gh er sc or es in di ca te d hi gh er le ve ls of pe rs on al ity di m en si on . than .05 indicate a good fit (McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
Examining the Impact of Peer and Family Belongingness on the Career Decision-making Difficulties of Young Adults
Slaten, C. D., & Baskin, T. W. (2013) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072713487857 · Cited by 54
“The goal of a path analysis is to test theoretically hypothesized relationships and the direction of influence of those relationships (McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
Background
Determinants of Social Contagion during New Product Adoption
Langley, D., Bijmolt, T. H. A., Ortt, R., & Pals, N. (2012) · Journal of Product Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5885.2012.00929.x · Cited by 54
“To study the antecedents and effects of social contagion, SEM was formulated, including a path model (Figure 1) and a measurement model (Table 1) (McDonald and Ho, 2002), in particular using a hierarchical component model (Jöreskog and Wold, 1982).”
Method

Authors: McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M.-H. R.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID: Ho, Moon-Ho Ringo
Venue: Psychological Methods
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002
Volume: 7
Issue: 1
Pages: 64-82
ISSN: 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
1939-1463
DOI: 10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64
OpenAlex: W2134368355
Cited by: 4,734
References: 102
Citations by year: 2026: 176 · 2025: 300 · 2024: 313 · 2023: 336 · 2022: 348 · 2021: 323 · 2020: 327 · 2019: 289 · 2018: 236 · 2017: 236 · 2016: 206 · 2015: 202 · 2014: 198 · 2013: 208 · 2012: 185
FWCI: 58.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Keywords: structural equation modeling, reporting guidelines, model justification, model identifiability, non-normality, missing data, goodness-of-fit indices, standard errors, correlation matrix, model mismatch, critical appraisal
MeSH terms: Humans, Models, Psychological, Research Design, Linear Models

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Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses.

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