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Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses.

McDonald, Roderick P., Ho, Moon-Ho Ringo·2002·Psychological Methods

DOI 10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64

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Abstract

Principles for reporting analyses using structural equation modeling are reviewed, with the goal of supplying readers with complete and accurate information. It is recommended that every report give a detailed justification of the model used, along with plausible alternatives and an account of identifiability. Nonnormality and missing data problems should also be addressed. A complete set of parameters and their standard errors is desirable, and it will often be convenient to supply the correlation matrix and discrepancies, as well as goodness-of-fit indices, so that readers can exercise independent critical judgment. A survey of fairly representative studies compares recent practice with the principles of reporting recommended here.

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“…(NFI) = 0.95, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.07 and root mean square residual (RMSR) = 0.1) were within the acceptable range recommended by the previous researchers (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988; McDonald & Ho, 2002), suggesting that the research model provided a good fit to the data.”
MethodInfluential
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Petróczi, A. (2007) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/1747-597x-2-34 · Cited by 153
The Selfie Paradox: Nobody Seems to Like Them Yet Everyone Has Reasons to Take Them. An Exploration of Psychological Functions of Selfies in Self-Presentation
Diefenbach, S., & Christoforakos, L. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00007 · Cited by 151
“A principal component analysis (varimax rotation, 58% explained variance) with three components to be extracted revealed a satisfactory solution with the five items assessing one strategy forming one component, and no loadings larger than 0.30 on other components.”
MethodInfluential
Promoting Success or Preventing Failure: Cultural Differences in Motivation by Positive and Negative Role Models
Lockwood, P., Marshall, T. C., & Sadler, P. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271598 · Cited by 209
“Model fit is a reflection of the fixed parameters (i.e., those paths that are set to zero) in the proposed model, not the path estimates (McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
Background
The Big Five Personality Factors as Predictors of Changes Across Time in Burnout and Its Facets
Armon, G., Shirom, A., & Melamed, S. (2011) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00731.x · Cited by 150
Environmentally friendly behaviour and green purchase in Austria and Lithuania
Liobikienė, G., Grincevičienė, Š., & Bernatonienė, J. (2016) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.084 · Cited by 150
The Effects of the Land Use System on Travel Behavior: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach
Acker, V. V., Witlox, F., & van Wee, B. (2007) · Transportation Planning and Technology · doi:10.1080/03081060701461675 · Cited by 149
“In order to do so, a two-step approach has been undertaken (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988 ; Raykov & Marcoulides, 2000 ; McDonald & Ho, 2002 ).”
Method
Academic self‐beliefs and prior knowledge as predictors of student achievement in Mathematics: a structural model
Hailikari, T. K., Nevgi, A., & Komulainen, E. J. (2007) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410701413753 · Cited by 154
“We used structural equation modelling, also known as path analysis with latent variables (McDonald & Ho, 2002 ), using AMOS 6.”
Method
Mindfulness predicts sleep-related self-regulation and well-being
Howell, A. J., Digdon, N. L., & Buro, K. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.009 · Cited by 169
Assessing the construct validity and utility of two new influence tactics
YUKL, G. A., Chavez, C. I., & Seifert, C. F. (2005) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.335 · Cited by 149
Changes in Ruminative Thinking Mediate the Clinical Benefits of Mindfulness: Preliminary Findings
Heeren, A., & Philippot, P. (2010) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-010-0037-y · Cited by 147
“The present measures addressed emotional reactions and behaviors that can be absent or present with varying frequency, making non-normality likely (MacDonald and Ho 2002).”
Background
Modelling attitudes to nature, tourism and sustainable development in national parks: A survey of visitors in China and the UK
Xu, F., & Fox, D. (2014) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2014.03.005 · Cited by 148
The Best of Both Worlds: Factor Analysis of Dichotomous Data Using Item Response Theory and Structural Equation Modeling
Glöckner-Rist, A., & Hoijtink, H. (2003) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1004_4 · Cited by 146
Interactive Whiteboard Acceptance: Applicability of the UTAUT Model to Student Teachers
Wong, K., Teo, T. P., & Russo, S. G. (2012) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-012-0001-9 · Cited by 146
“Finally, the TLI value should be greater than .90 (McDonald and Ho 2002).”
Background
Work Hours and Caseload as Predictors of Physician Burnout: The Mediating Effects by Perceived Workload and by Autonomy
Shirom, A., Nirel, N., & Vinokur, A. D. (2009) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00411.x · Cited by 163
“Following widely accepted recommendations for SEM analysis (McDonald & Ho, 2002), we report three goodness-of-fit indices: the Normed Fit Index (NFI), the Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI, also known as TLI), and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI).”
Method
Shame and the motivation to change the self.
Lickel, B. A., Kushlev, K., Savalei, V., Matta, S., & Schmader, T. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0038235 · Cited by 161
Measuring adolescents' HRQoL via self reports and parent proxy reports: an evaluation of the psychometric properties of both versions of the KINDL-R instrument
Erhart, M., Ellert, U., Kurth, B., & Ravens‐Sieberer, U. (2009) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/1477-7525-7-77 · Cited by 145
Mixed reality experiences in museums: Exploring the impact of functional elements of the devices on visitors’ immersive experiences and post-experience behaviours
Trunfio, M., Jung, T. H., & Campana, S. (2022) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2022.103698 · Cited by 169
The mediating effects of leader integrity with transparency in communication and work engagement/performance
Vogelgesang, G. R., Leroy, H., & Avolio, B. J. (2013) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.01.004 · Cited by 149
Interpersonal Callousness Trajectories Across Adolescence
Pardini, D. A., & Loeber, R. (2008) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854807310157 · Cited by 154
“RMSEA values between .05 and .08 represent an acceptable fit, and values less than .05 indicate a good fit ( McDonald & Ho, 2002 ).”
BackgroundMethod
Sleep duration, positive attitude toward life, and academic achievement: The role of daytime tiredness, behavioral persistence, and school start times
Perkinson‐Gloor, N., Lemola, S., & Grob, A. (2013) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.11.008 · Cited by 141
WAIS-IV and Clinical Validation of the Four- and Five-Factor Interpretative Approaches
Weiss, L. G., Keith, T. Z., Zhu, J., & Chen, H. (2013) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282913478030 · Cited by 154
“An RMSEA less than .05 corresponded to a good fit, and .08 was considered an acceptable fit (McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
Method
Structural Equation Modeling
Stein, C. M., Morris, N. J., Hall, N. B., & Nock, N. L. (2017) · Methods in molecular biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-7274-6_28 · Cited by 167
Employee isolation and telecommuter organizational commitment
Wang, W., Albert, L. J., & Sun, Q. (2020) · Employee Relations · doi:10.1108/er-06-2019-0246 · Cited by 152
“62 (Table I), indicating acceptable convergent validity (McDonald and Ho, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluential
The structure of working memory abilities across the adult life span.
Hale, S., Rose, N. S., Myerson, J., Strube, M., Sommers, M. S., Tye‐Murray, N., & Spehar, B. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0021483 · Cited by 154
“…values for fit indices has long been a subject of debate (e.g., Bentler, 2007; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Jackson, Gillaspy, & Purc-Stephenson, 2009; McDonald & Ho, 2002), but the following are a fair representation: Measures of absolute fit (chi-square), parsimony corrected fit (root mean square…”
Comparative Study Between the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Value–Belief–Norm Model Regarding the Environment, on S panish Housewives' Recycling Behavior
Aguilar‐Luzón, M. D. C., García‐Martínez, J. M. A., Calvo‐Salguero, A., & Salinas, J. M. (2012) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00962.x · Cited by 144
“That is, the relationship between attitudes, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control does not appear to be very clear (McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
Background
Quantification of risk perception: Development and validation of the construction worker risk perception (CoWoRP) scale
Man, S. S., Chan, A. H. S., & Alabdulkarim, S. A. (2019) · Journal of Safety Research · doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2019.09.009 · Cited by 141
Roles of Parental Sleep/Wake Patterns, Socioeconomic Status, and Daytime Activities in the Sleep/Wake Patterns of Children
Zhang, J., Li, A. M., Fok, T. F., & Wing, Y. K. (2010) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.10.036 · Cited by 137
Developmental pathways to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: Child maltreatment, emerging personality, and internalizing versus externalizing psychopathology.
Oshri, A., Rogosch, F. A., Burnette, M. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2011) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0023151 · Cited by 151
The influence of recreation experiences on environmentally responsible behavior: the case of Liuqiu Island, Taiwan
Lee, T. H., Jan, F., & Huang, G. W. (2015) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.1080/09669582.2015.1024257 · Cited by 140
“However, the large sample size may have affected the x2 value because a large sample size can bias the assessment of a model’s fit (McDonald & Ho, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Construct Validation of the Greek SF-36 Health Survey
Anagnostopoulos, F., Niakas, D. A., & Pappa, E. (2005) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-005-3866-8 · Cited by 140
“Since good-fitting models produce consistent results on many different indices, it is recommended that multiple indices are used and reported, along with their cutoff values signifying adequate model fit [13].”
Background

Authors: McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M.-H. R.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID: Ho, Moon-Ho Ringo
Venue: Psychological Methods
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002
Volume: 7
Issue: 1
Pages: 64-82
ISSN: 1082-989X (ISSN-L)
1939-1463
DOI: 10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.64
OpenAlex: W2134368355
Cited by: 4,734
References: 102
Citations by year: 2026: 176 · 2025: 300 · 2024: 313 · 2023: 336 · 2022: 348 · 2021: 323 · 2020: 327 · 2019: 289 · 2018: 236 · 2017: 236 · 2016: 206 · 2015: 202 · 2014: 198 · 2013: 208 · 2012: 185
FWCI: 58.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Methods (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Keywords: structural equation modeling, reporting guidelines, model justification, model identifiability, non-normality, missing data, goodness-of-fit indices, standard errors, correlation matrix, model mismatch, critical appraisal
MeSH terms: Humans, Models, Psychological, Research Design, Linear Models

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