The dragons of inaction: Psychological barriers that limit climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Abstract
Most people think climate change and sustainability are important problems, but too few global citizens engaged in high-greenhouse-gas-emitting behavior are engaged in enough mitigating behavior to stem the increasing flow of greenhouse gases and other environmental problems. Why is that? Structural barriers such as a climate-averse infrastructure are part of the answer, but psychological barriers also impede behavioral choices that would facilitate mitigation, adaptation, and environmental sustainability. Although many individuals are engaged in some ameliorative action, most could do more, but they are hindered by seven categories of psychological barriers, or "dragons of inaction": limited cognition about the problem, ideological world views that tend to preclude pro-environmental attitudes and behavior, comparisons with key other people, sunk costs and behavioral momentum, discredence toward experts and authorities, perceived risks of change, and positive but inadequate behavior change. Structural barriers must be removed wherever possible, but this is unlikely to be sufficient. Psychologists must work with other scientists, technical experts, and policymakers to help citizens overcome these psychological barriers.
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Individuals with high FR often process climate-related messages through a morally engaged lens, perceiving the consequences of inaction as personally relevant and ethically significant.
“Furthermore, individuals with high FR often process climate-related messages through a morally engaged lens, perceiving the consequences of inaction as personally relevant and ethically significant [35].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [35]
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- Authors
- Gifford, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Victoria (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Gifford, Robert
- ORCID
- Gifford, Robert
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 290-302
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2155675907
- Cited by
- 2,326
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 233 · 2025: 286 · 2024: 205 · 2023: 333 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 186 · 2020: 164 · 2019: 154 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 130 · 2016: 94 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 61 · 2013: 46 · 2012: 37
- FWCI
- 157.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Climate Change Communication and Perception
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental Education and Sustainability
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Climate Change Policy and Economics
- Keywords
- psychological barriers, climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, pro-environmental behavior, behavioral momentum, sunk costs, risk perception, social comparison, environmental cognition, behavior change
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Climate, Conservation of Natural Resources, Humans, Climate Change
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