The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms
Open accessAbstract
Despite a long tradition of effectiveness in laboratory tests, normative messages have had mixed success in changing behavior in field contexts, with some studies showing boomerang effects. To test a theoretical account of this inconsistency, we conducted a field experiment in which normative messages were used to promote household energy conservation. As predicted, a descriptive normative message detailing average neighborhood usage produced either desirable energy savings or the undesirable boomerang effect, depending on whether households were already consuming at a low or high rate. Also as predicted, adding an injunctive message (conveying social approval or disapproval) eliminated the boomerang effect. The results offer an explanation for the mixed success of persuasive appeals based on social norms and suggest how such appeals should be properly crafted.
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- Findingown data
For households consuming above the average, the combined descriptive-plus-injunctive message decreased daily energy consumption relative to baseline in the short term (M = 18.91 vs. baseline M = 20.63, n = 63, t(62) = 2.49, p_rep = .96, d = 0.63).
“Finally, for households consuming above the average, the combined descriptive-plusinjunctive message served to decrease energy consumption (M = 18.91,SE = 0.73 vs. baseline M = 20.63,SE = 0.64; n = 63), t(62) = 2.49, p rep = .96,d = 0.63.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The valence of the emoticon (happy face or sad face) communicates an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being consumed.
- Findingown data
For households below the mean on baseline energy consumption, descriptive-norm-only feedback produced a significant increase in daily energy consumption relative to baseline in the short term (M = 11.27 vs. baseline M = 10.38, n = 79, t(78) = 2.28, p_rep = .94, d = -0.52).
“In contrast, for households that were below the mean on baseline energy consumption, the descriptivenorm-only message produced an increase in energy consumption from baseline (M = 11.27,SE = 0.46 vs. baseline M = 10.38,SE = 0.33; n = 79), t(78) = 2.28, p rep = .94,d = 5 0.52.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Residents perceive descriptive normative information about the average household's energy consumption as a descriptive norm.
- Findingown data
In the short term, the reduction in energy usage for high-consuming households was 1.72 kWh/day in the descriptive-plus-injunctive condition, compared with 1.22 kWh/day in the descriptive-only condition.
“For example, in the short term, the reduction in energy usage for high-consuming households was 1.72 kWh/day in the descriptive-plus-injunctive condition, compared with 1.22 kWh/day in the descriptive-only condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For low-consuming households, the combined injunctive-plus-descriptive message produced no change from baseline in longer-term daily energy consumption (longer-term M = 10.14 vs. baseline M = 10.04, n = 70, t(69) = 0.64, n.s.).
“However, the combined injunctive-plus-descriptive message produced no change from baseline for low-consuming households (longer-term M = 10.14, SE = 0.37 vs. baseline M = 10.04,SE = 0.35; n = 70), t(69) = 0.64, n.s.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The valence of the emoticon (happy face or sad face) communicates an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being consumed.
- Findingown data
For households initially low in energy consumption, the descriptive-norm-only condition produced a significant increase in daily electricity usage in the longer term (longer-term M = 11.13 vs. baseline M = 10.15, n = 68, t(67) = 2.42, p_rep = .95, d = 0.59).
“For those households initially low in energy consumption, the descriptive-norm-only condition produced a significant increase in electricity usage (longer-term M = 11.13,SE =0.44 vs. baseline M = 10.15,SE = 0.34; n = 68), t(67) = 2.42, p rep = .95,d = 0.59.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Residents perceive descriptive normative information about the average household's energy consumption as a descriptive norm.
- Findingown data
For households that consumed more than the neighborhood average at baseline, descriptive-norm-only feedback produced a significant decrease in daily energy consumption relative to baseline in the short term (M = 20.25 vs. baseline M = 21.47, n = 64, t(63) = 2.17, p_rep = .93, d = 0.55).
“For households that consumed more than the average during the baseline period, the descriptivenorm-only feedback produced a significant decrease in energy consumption relative to the baseline (M = 20.25,SE = 1.03 vs. baseline M = 21.47,SE = 0.89; n =64), t(63) = 2.17, p rep = .93,d = 0.55.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Residents perceive descriptive normative information about the average household's energy consumption as a descriptive norm.
- Findingown data
When an injunctive message was added to descriptive normative feedback, households consuming less energy than average continued to consume at the desirable low rate in the short term (M = 10.58 vs. baseline M = 10.34, n = 81, t(80) = 1.04, n.s.).
“When the injunctive message was added to the descriptive normative feedback, households that were consuming less energy than average continued to consume at the desirable low rate (M = 10.58,SE = 0.38 vs. baseline M = 10.34,SE = 0.33; n =81), t(80) = 1.04, n.s.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The valence of the emoticon (happy face or sad face) communicates an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being consumed.
- Premisecitation
The majority of individuals overestimate the prevalence of many undesirable behaviors, such as alcohol use among peers.
“The majority of individuals overestimate the prevalence of many undesirable behaviors, such as alcohol use among peers (e.g., Borsari & Carey, 2003;Prentice & Miller, 1993)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationown data
The longer-term results indicate that the effects of the normative messages continued to be strong even 4 weeks after the initial intervention.
“Moreover, despite concerns that normative interventions have an effect for only a short time, the longer-term results indicate that the effects of the normative messages continued to be strong even 4 weeks after the initial intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The results for both the short-term and longer-term measures were consistent with the study's predictions.
“Overall, the results for both the short-term measure and the longer-term measure were consistent with predictions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Providing high-energy-consuming households with descriptive normative information about average neighborhood home energy usage constructively decreased energy consumption.
“Providing high-energy-consuming households with descriptive normative information regarding the average home energy usage in their neighborhood constructively decreased energy consumption.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Adding an injunctive component to the message buffered the boomerang effect.
“However, adding an injunctive component to the message proved reconstructive by buffering this unwelcome boomerang effect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The valence of the emoticon (happy face or sad face) communicates an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being consumed.
- Interpretationown data
For households initially low in base rates of energy consumption, the same descriptive message produced a destructive boomerang effect, leading to increased energy consumption.
“In contrast, for households that were initially low in their base rates of energy consumption, the same descriptive message produced a destructive boomerang effect, leading to increased levels of energy consumption.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Individuals use their perceptions of peer norms as a standard against which to compare their own behaviors.
“individuals use their perceptions of peer norms as a standard against which to compare their own behaviors (e.g., Baer, Stacy, & Larimer, 1991;Clapp & McDonell, 2000;Perkins & Berkowitz, 1986).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
These findings provide a potential explanation for the mixed effects of normative messages in field contexts.
“These findings provide a potential explanation for the mixed effects of normative messages in field contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Providing residents with descriptive normative information had a dramatically different effect depending on whether they were initially above or below the average level of energy consumption in their neighborhood.
“Providing residents with descriptive normative information had a dramatically different effect depending on whether they were initially above or below the average level of energy consumption in their neighborhood.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
If the distribution of the target behavior is strongly skewed in the positive direction, such that more people are below the norm than above it, then a normative message might increase the behavior in aggregate.
“For example, if the distribution of the target behavior is strongly skewed in the positive direction, such that more people are below the norm than above it, then a normative message might increase the behavior in aggregate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Some studies indicate that social-norms marketing campaigns have actually increased the undesirable behaviors and misperceptions they set out to decrease.
“In fact, some studies indicate that social-norms marketing campaigns have actually increased the undesirable behaviors and misperceptions they set out to decrease (e.g., Perkins, Haines, & Rice, 2005;Wechsler et al., 2003;Werch et al., 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Despite widespread adoption of social-norms marketing campaigns, evidence for the success of such programs has been surprisingly mixed.
“However, despite the widespread adoption of social-norms marketing campaigns, evidence for the success of such programs has been surprisingly mixed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
A descriptive normative message detailing average neighborhood usage produced either desirable energy savings or the undesirable boomerang effect, depending on whether households were already consuming at a low or high rate.
“As predicted, a descriptive normative message detailing average neighborhood usage produced either desirable energy savings or the undesirable boomerang effect, depending on whether households were already consuming at a low or high rate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Focus theory predicts that if only one of the two types of norms is prominent in an individual's consciousness, it will exert the stronger influence on behavior.
“Focus theory predicts that if only one of the two types of norms is prominent in an individual's consciousness, it will exert the stronger influence on behavior (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004 source
- Interpretationown data
The findings of this experiment are highly consistent with predictions derived from the focus theory of normative conduct.
“The findings of this experiment are highly consistent with predictions derived from the focus theory of normative conduct (Cialdini et al., 1991).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cialdini et al., 1991 source
- Interpretationown data
Adding an injunctive message conveying social approval or disapproval eliminated the boomerang effect.
“Also as predicted, adding an injunctive message (conveying social approval or disapproval) eliminated the boomerang effect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The valence of the emoticon (happy face or sad face) communicates an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being consumed.
- Premisenone given
Descriptive norms provide a standard from which people do not want to deviate.
“Descriptive norms provide a standard from which people do not want to deviate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 11
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor households high in energy consumption at baseline, the descriptive-norm-only message continued to produce a decrease in daily energy consumption in the longer term, but the difference was not conventionally significant (baseline M = 22.32 vs. longer-term M = 21.29, n = 52, t(51) = 1.45, n.s.).
“For those households that were high in energy consumption at baseline, the descriptive-norm-only message continued to produce the (constructive) decrease in energy consumption, although the difference was not conventionally significant (baseline M = 22.32, SE = 1.05 vs. longer-term M = 21.29,SE = 0.92; n = 52), t(51) = 1.45, n.s.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Residents perceive descriptive normative information about the average household's energy consumption as a descriptive norm.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe results show the overall pattern that aligned descriptive and injunctive norms produce larger behavioral changes than either type alone, although the differences were not statistically significant.
“Our results show this overall pattern, although the differences were not statistically significant.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAt each measurement period, daily household energy consumption was positively skewed (M = 15.03, SD = 7.10, skew = 1.39, range = 1.63-35.88), resulting in more households below the mean than above.
“At each measurement period, daily household energy consumption was positively skewed (M = 15.03,SD 5 7.10, skew = 1.39, range = 1.63-35.88),resulting in more households below the mean than above.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The mean is a more meaningful number than other measures of central tendency when reported to residents.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataOf the 287 households, 41 were inconsistently above or below average across the 2 weeks of normative feedback and were excluded from longer-term analyses; inconsistency rate did not differ significantly across the four experimental conditions.
“Of the 287 households in the study, 41 were inconsistently above or below the average across the 2 weeks of normative feedback and were therefore excluded from the analyses of longer-term change.There were no significant differences in inconsistency rate across the four experimental conditions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe results demonstrate the potential for descriptive normative messages to boomerang, and show that an injunctive element of approval is reconstructive in ameliorating these unwanted effects.
“Our results demonstrate the potential for such messages to boomerang, but the results also show that an injunctive element of approval is reconstructive in its ability to ameliorate these unwanted effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The valence of the emoticon (happy face or sad face) communicates an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being consumed.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPrior research has suggested that presenting aligned descriptive and injunctive norms can result in larger behavioral changes than presenting either type of norm in isolation.
“Second, prior research has suggested that presenting aligned descriptive and injunctive norms can result in larger behavioral changes than presenting either type of norm in isolation (Cialdini, 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cialdini, 2003 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenHouseholds were matched on baseline energy consumption and randomly assigned to the descriptive-norm-only condition or the descriptive-plus-injunctive-information condition.
“Households were matched on this baseline measure and randomly assigned to either the descriptive-norm-only condition or the descriptive-plusinjunctive-information condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataThree households withdrew after the initial normative-feedback distribution, resulting in a final sample of 287 households.
“Three households called to withdraw from the study following the initial normative-feedback distribution, resulting in a final sample of 287.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe meter readings were reliable: independent readings of the same meter correlated at r = .999, and readings correlated with utility-company electricity-usage data at .96 and .99 in two separate months.
“On 157 occasions, two research assistants were assigned to read the same meter.These independent readings correlated at r 5 .999.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“The correlation between this measure and our readings was .96and .99 on 2 separate months.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Results · plain
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe overall impact of a normative education campaign will depend on the distribution of the behavior in the population; a campaign could produce an increase, decrease, or no change in the behavior.
“Thus, the overall impact of a normative education campaign will depend on the distribution of the behavior in the population; a campaign could produce an increase, decrease, or no change in the behavior (the latter being most likely).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataFor individuals who tend to engage in destructive behaviors, a descriptive normative message can guide them toward more constructive behavior; for individuals who already engage in the constructive behavior, a descriptive normative message can spur more destructive behavior.
“Our results suggest that for those individuals who tend to engage in destructive behaviors, a descriptive normative message can be a guide to engaging in more constructive behavior; in contrast, for those individuals who already engage in the constructive behavior, a descriptive normative message can be a spur to engaging in more destructive behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe results offer an explanation for the mixed success of persuasive appeals based on social norms and suggest how such appeals should be properly crafted.
“The results offer an explanation for the mixed success of persuasive appeals based on social norms and suggest how such appeals should be properly crafted.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSocial norms not only spur but also guide action in direct and meaningful ways.
“the research has clearly established that social norms not only spur but also guide action in direct and meaningful ways (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2003;Cialdini, Kallgren, & Reno, 1991;Darley & Latane´, 1970;Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskevicius, 2006;Kerr, 1995;Terry & Hogg, 2001).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
The paper relies on this without support.
The valence of the emoticon (happy face or sad face) communicates an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being consumed.
“The valence of the emoticon was used to communicate an injunctive message of approval or disapproval for the amount of energy being con-sumed.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The mean is a more meaningful number than other measures of central tendency when reported to residents.
“we used the mean as the dividing point for consumption because we believed it would provide a more meaningful number than other measures of central tendency when reported to residents.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Energy conservation has a direct personal benefit (saving money), is private, is recurring rather than a one-time action, and has widespread social approval.
“The target behavior in this study (energy conservation) has a direct personal benefit (saving money), is private, is reoccurring (rather than a onetime action), and has widespread social approval.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Residents perceive descriptive normative information about the average household's energy consumption as a descriptive norm.
“descriptive normative information about the actual energy consumption of the average household in their neighborhood during that same period (in kilowatt-hours per day)”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Placing a greater emphasis on the injunctive norm can help to overcome the problem of a negative descriptive norm.
“Research has shown that placing a greater emphasis on the injunctive norm can help to overcome the problem of a negative descriptive norm (Schultz et al., 2007; Smith and Louis, 2008).”
From A Social Identity Analysis of Climate Change and Environmental Attitudes and Behaviors: Insights and Opportunities (2016) · cites this paper as Schultz et al., 2007
Many of the reviewed experiments were field studies with high ecological validity.
“Notice that many of the experiments just mentioned were field studies, that is, they were conducted in naturalistic contexts ensuring high ecological validity (see Schultz et al. [2007]; Goldstein et al. [2008]; Gerber and Rogers [2009]; Hallsworth et al. [2017]; Sparkman and Walton [2017]).”
From Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms (2023) · cites this paper as Schultz et al. [2007]
Schultz et al. found that households informed they used more electricity than neighbours reduced consumption, while those informed they used less increased it.
“in one study, (Californian) households informed that they used more electricity than all the other households in their neighbourhood subsequently reduced their energy consumption, whereas households informed that they used less than all others increased it (Schultz et al. [2007]).”
From Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms (2023) · cites this paper as Schultz et al. [2007]
Many experiments on descriptive norms can themselves be seen as instances of public scientific testimony because they involve public claims by scientific or authoritative sources about negative features.
“many of the experiments on descriptive norms discussed earlier can in fact be viewed as involving actual instances of PST on their own: they involve public (descriptive-norms conveying) claims by scientific or otherwise authoritative sources about negative features”
From Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms (2023) · cites this paper as Schultz et al. [2007]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(80) = 1.04reported n.s. · recomputed p = .301
“t(80) = 1.04, n.s.”
- Consistentt(51) = 1.45reported n.s. · recomputed p = .153
“t(51) = 1.45, n.s.”
- Consistentt(69) = 0.64reported n.s. · recomputed p = .524
“t(69) = 0.64, n.s.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
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- Authors
- Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V.
- Affiliations
- California State University, San Marcos (US)
- 2 University of Arkansas
- Arizona State University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2007-05
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 429-434
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2147478345
- Cited by
- 3,643
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 156 · 2025: 222 · 2024: 235 · 2023: 231 · 2022: 243 · 2021: 329 · 2020: 244 · 2019: 284 · 2018: 241 · 2017: 225 · 2016: 232 · 2015: 226 · 2014: 185 · 2013: 172 · 2012: 138
- FWCI
- 233.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- John Spoor Broome Library Institutional Repository (California State University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental Education and Sustainability
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Psychology of Social Influence
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- social norms, normative messages, boomerang effect, descriptive norms, injunctive norms, residential energy conservation, persuasive appeals, field experiments, social approval, energy conservation
- MeSH terms
- Conservation of Energy Resources, Family Characteristics, Humans, Persuasive Communication, Residence Characteristics, Social Behavior, Social Values
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